The New Testament tells that Paul’s missionary vision was concentrated on serving the Gentiles. Being a strong enemy of Christianity, Paul became one of the greatest miracles of the New Testament and thus his life was a true representation of what a real mission is. There are several characteristics of missionary methods Paul uses in his service.

The first method that can be recognized is the so-called itinerant evangelism which lies in spreading the good news in every place on Earth. In other words, Paul “[calls] people everywhere in the then known world to repent and give themselves to Christ” (Moreau, Corwin, and McGee 2004). The accent is put on the fact that the Gospel is spread by Paul not in the place of his usual inhabitance but in the places, he would even never visit if it were not for God’s calling in his life. This method should be well understood by each Christian because often Church sees evangelism only locally. Paul provides a good method of making God’s will be done since the main commission consists in spreading the Gospel to the ends of the Earth. Paul’s method went beyond all borders of the average human mind- he committed himself to go anywhere God would send him, whatever it cost him. Another important method used by Paul in his evangelism is following the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. It is evident from the Scriptures that Paul was led by Holy Spirit in every decision he made. It even turned out sometimes that the places he wanted to visit were not part of God’s plan so he successfully avoided traveling there. Thus, “in a blend of Spirit-led decisions and divine revelations, Paul moves from one city to another” (Moreau, Corwin and McGee 2004). Of course, since mission is God’s will first, and each missionary should follow this rule, but Paul’s life is a true example of how missionaries should accomplish their calling in preaching the Gospel to the ends of the Earth.

The next characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods that may be traced from the life of Paul is total fearlessness. Paul did not appreciate his earthly life at all but considered God’s mission to be the main purpose. It is clear that Paul’s mission consisted in fulfilling God’s will even at the cost of his own life, and his daring heart allowed him to return to places full of danger. Therefore, “modern Christians may wonder what Paul’s feelings were as he returned to Lystra, where recently he had been stoned and left for dead…” but this seems to be “a nonissue” for Paul as he was straight-out for mission (Moreau, Corwin and McGee 2004). Paul’s methods were radical enough: he exposed people’s sins and also was not afraid to die for the truth. One more important characteristic of Paul’s missionary methods is that he never left those he converted to Christianity without spiritual help and support. To be more precise, despite his calling consisted of going to the nations and spreading the Gospel to the ends of the Earth, he still considered it important to support the planted churches. He does this in the face of persecutions and tries to fulfill his promise to visit the churches at all costs, though still, he is every time led by the Holy Spirit.

The last characteristic is presenting Gospel to all people, regardless of their background. Paul “was willing to adapt in different places a radically different approach, as he put it, “for those under the law and for those not under the law” (Winter and Hawthorne 1981). This was one of the most crucial characteristics of Paul’s mission because it triggered many contradictions among the Jewish people and Pharisees. His message was as contradictory and difficult to accept as the message of Jesus Christ. This is the testimony of Paul’s true devotion to the teaching of Christ. As His disciple, Paul followed the main principle Jesus Christ used: God loved the world and wants every human being to be saved. All in all, Paul’s missionary methods fully express the essence of the Gospel: God’s love to people at all cost.

References

Moreau, A. Scott, Gary Corwin, and Gary B McGee. 2004. Introducing World Missions. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic.

Winter, Ralph D and Steven C Hawthorne. 1981. Perspectives on The World Christian Movement: Reader. Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library.

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To understand who Jesus in the Old Testament was, one must first understand who he was in the New Testament. The New Testament refers to Jesus as Christ which means Messiah borrowed from the Hebrew word and the Greek word which means the chosen one or the anointed one. Most of the apostles that came after the death of Jesus Christ and those who were his students refer to him as Jesus the Messiah. This means that they believed that he is the very same person that was prophesied in the Old Testament by many prophets, for instance, Jeremiah, Daniel, Isaiah, and Ezekiel. “It is not easy to determine what constitutes allusion in the Old Testament”[1]. The paper aims at relating the New Testament to the Old Testament to offer a summary and emphasis on the topic of discussion.

Summary

The Old Testament presents a God of juice and punishment on those who disobeyed his rules, for instance, he, the father, sent plagues on Egypt as punishment for what they had done to the children of Israel. He too gained freedom on Sodom, but Jesus comes in the New Testament and offers a different approach to love and compassion offering humankind forgiveness and in the most important part and foundation of Christianity, he as for their sins. The Old Testament offers a prophecy of a son, born in the lineage of David as a praise to God the father. It also describes that no one had seen the Father nor heard him directly unlike Jesus that is born of the origin Mary ad walks among men in a day that God the Father had not done before.

Jesus is the fulfillment of the Old Testament. In Genesis, God creates the world from the word of the mount and later but because of human sin, he offered a promise that the Messiah would be born in the very lineage of David. While he was under arrest, Jesus referred to Himself as ‘I AM’ which is also the divine name of God as He had used it while in the Exodus to Moses, and thus, he brought in a confirmation that God the Father has never been seen or heard by man before. In the same instance, Christ had predated Abraham, which made the Jews quite angry but it also brought out the new meaning. This offered a probability that he, Jesus had the probability of being the son of God[2].

The Old Testament has fifty-two prophecies on the coming of Jesus Christ and thus if we considered that the Old Testament prophesies are void and invalid, Christianity as we know it does not have meaning. The savior that had been affirmed in the Old Testament would not have been born and thus he would have been just a man fulfilling his mission, and thus, there is relevance that has been created by the Old Testament.

Jesus himself did not claim to be the Son of God in the New Testament he responded that it was the people that called him. Thus, it brings out a question on whether he was the actual fulfillment of what had been prophesied but in affirming the place of Jesus in the Bible. Jesus accepts to die for human sins as he had been ordered by God the father claiming that His will should be done which confirms the validity of his coming and the ascending to the father after his work was done[3].

After the death of Jesus Christ, Christianity evolved, and new movements were formed, unlike the olden days where the Roman Catholic church was dominant at that time[4]. The apostles of Jesus Christ had learned new philosophies that they had learned from their teachers. They spread out and continued the work that the Son of God had started.

Paul, one of the apostles of Jesus Christ, explains how the church was formed. He states that they built the development of the New Testament church that emerged after the death of Jesus through the New Testament. Then the prophets who wrote the Old Testament and Jesus Christ himself being the cornerstone of all of it (Ephesians 2:20)[5].

Peter another apostle preached on the day of Pentecost a very powerful sermon at the beginning of the New Testament church and on that day he converted 3000 people and his sermon only entailed scriptures from the Old Testaments (Acts 2:14-41)[6].

Conclusion

Most of the books in the New Testament make lots of direct quotes from the Old Testament except for four books. Many individuals today misinterpret the New Testament living like the Old Testament is not part of the new teachings. This is not the case as it is seen on numerous occasions that we have seen the Old Testament being involved directly with the New Testament. Jesus Christ believed in the Old Testament teachings and prophets. The books of the Old Testament inspire and retain a permanent value, they do not depreciate but hold a huge significance as none of the old covenant has ever been revoked.

Bibliography

FRANCE, R. T. Jesus and the Old Testament. [Downers Grove, Ill.]: Inter-Varsity Press, 1971.

GUTHRIE, NANCY. The One Year Book of Discovering Jesus in the Old Testament. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2012.

[1] R. T France, Jesus and the Old Testament ([Downers Grove, Ill.]: Inter-Varsity Press, 1971). p.15

[2] Nancy Guthrie, The One Year Book Of Discovering Jesus In The Old Testament (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2012). Feb 4.

[3] Nancy Guthrie (2012). Feb 8.

[4] R. T France (1971), p.17

[5] Nancy Guthrie (2012). Feb 8. September 12.

[6] R. T France (1971). P.35-37

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Mary, the mother of Jesus, is one of the most significant characters in the New Testament. For her humility and obedience to God, Mary has been admired by generations of Christians throughout history. The character of Mary has also been widely covered in Western art, literature, and music. Based on the New Testament’s depiction of her, Christians and theologians across the world have over time constructed a largely admirable picture of Mary. Interestingly, biblical references to Mary are too sparse and few especially considering her character and significance. Because of this, the current paper presents a biographical study of Mary with an aim to shedding more light on her character, early life, and significance to Christianity. In addition to the New Testament, the paper relies on established scholarly sources for the necessary literature.

Background Information and Early Life

According to some scholars, Mary was a descendant of David and this ensured that ancient prophecy over the lineage of Jesus was fulfilled through her being the mother of Jesus. This supposition is, however, based on Luke’s genealogy of the ancestors of Jesus through Mary. Matthew’s genealogy of the ancestors of Jesus is different from that of Luke as the former traces this lineage through Solomon while the latter traces it through Nathan[1]. Although other scholars interpret that Luke was tracing Mary’s lineage, he was tracing that of Joseph. When viewed in this context, it is difficult to ascertain whether Mary was a descendant of David. It is, however, clear that Jesus was a descendant of David since there is Biblical evidence that Joseph was from David’s lineage[2].

The most comprehensive biblical references of Mary’s early life are in the books of Luke and James. According to the Gospel of James, Mary was the daughter of Joachim and Anna. Joachim was very wealthy and always gave a double offering to the Lord. Despite his generosity and commitment to offerings, Joachim and Anna stayed for long without having children. When a man by the name of Reubel reminded him that he had not yet conceived a child, Joachim became particularly frustrated and moved to the desert where he fasted and prayed until the Lord heard his prayer. When describing the child that she would give birth to, the angel of the Lord told Anna that the child would be famous and be spoken of everywhere[3].

When Mary turned three, her parents took her to the temple where she received food from an angel. Mary served in the temple until she was twelve. When she reached this age, the Lord instructed Zachariah on how he would get a husband for Mary. The Lord told Zachariah to gather widowers so that the Lord would give Mary to one of them as his wife. When Zachariah did as the Lord had instructed him, Joseph was anointed as the one to take Mary as his wife. And although he declined at first, Joseph agreed to take her after considering the potential wrath that would result from disobeying God.

While at Joseph’s house, an angel appeared and confirmed to her that she would conceive of the Lord. At first, Mary appeared shocked by the idea of conceiving a child from the Lord God. The angel, however, explained to her that the power of God would get her pregnant and that the child she would give birth to would save people from their sins. It was only after this clarification that Mary agreed to the prophecy of the angel. The visit of the angel is regarded as one of the most important events in the early life of Mary as it was during this time that Mary understood God’s plans for her[4].

The Character of Mary

The earliest reference to the character of Mary is found in the book of Galatians. In the fourth chapter of this book, the phrase “born of woman” is used. In contemporary theology, some scholars regard the phrase as an allusion to Mary while others regard it as a reference to the essential humanity of an individual. When applied to Mary, the phrase “born of woman” was meant to portray Jesus as completely human[5]. Considering that at least one parent was needed for a child to be considered human in the ancient world, Mary played a particularly important role in the depiction of Jesus as a man and human. The phrase could also be taken to mean that Jesus’ birth would not be conventional as it would involve a woman only rather than a woman and a man[6].

According to some scholars, the phrases “born of woman” as used in the Bible and “born of the Virgin Mary” as used in the Apostles Creed have a similar significance and purpose when used to refer to Jesus the son of Mary. When used in this context, the two phrases highlight that Mary’s role as the mother of Jesus was the most important of her life. In this regard, this role takes precedence over all other roles played by Mary throughout her life. Despite this seemingly acceptable interpretation, the concept of a virgin birth as advanced by Catholicism has been notably divisive among scholars. According to opponents, the concept of a virgin birth is not consistent with the fact that Jesus was a human being born of a human mother. Proponents of the concept, on the other hand, argue that a virgin birth was enabled by Mary’s acceptance of the role of facilitating the process of incarnation.

Although most references to Mary’s pregnancy in the Old Testament assert that she conceived without any human agency, certain texts could be interpreted to suggest otherwise. In Matthew 1:16 for instance, the phrase “Joseph begat Jesus” has been used by some scholars to question whether Mary conceived without any human agency[7]. Interestingly, references to the topic of how Mary conceived are only found in the books of Matthew and Luke. This makes it particularly difficult for scholars to make conclusions on the topic with any degree of certainty. Despite this, most Protestant churches continue to teach that Mary’s virginity was not impaired when she conceived Jesus[8].

The question over whether Mary was genetically connected to her son Jesus has been equally divisive throughout history. When analyzing the issue, it is important to first acknowledge that the sinful nature of our first parents has always been passed from one generation to the other. In this regard, similar to all other human beings, Mary had sinned since she was genetically related to Adam and Eve. Her son Jesus, however, was an exception as He did not have an inherited sin nature. When placed in this context, it could be argued that Mary did not have a genetic connection with her son since Jesus was sinless[9]. The book of Hebrews ascertains this proposition by referring to Jesus as a special creation of God that was placed in Mary’s womb (Hebrew 10:5…). This Biblical reference could also be used as evidence for the proposition that Mary conceived without any human agency. Had she conceived otherwise, Jesus would have inherited a sinful nature.

During the period after Jesus’ baptism, Mary experienced a rather unfortunate time with her son Jesus. When Jesus started to spread the Gospel, Mary joined her other sons in regarding Jesus as crazy. Subsequently, Jesus appeared to disown them when He refused to go meet His family who had come over at one of His meetings.

“Who are my mother and brothers?” He asked. Then he looked round at those seated in a circle around Him and said, “Here are my mother and my brothers! Whoever does God’s will is my brother and sister and mother.” (Mark 3:33-35)[10].

The above incident marked the start of a difficult period for Mary. The fallout between Mary and her son Jesus continued when Jesus appeared to refer to Mary as far from blessed. The incident in which these events happened also marked the first worshipper of Mary recorded in the Bible. While reacting to one of Jesus’ teaching sessions, a woman amongst a crowd called out to Jesus and said “Blessed is the mother who gave you birth and nursed you (Luke 11:27).” Jesus responded to this statement by asserting that those who hear the word of God and heed to it are the ones blessed.

The response from Jesus appeared to indicate the strained relationships in Mary’s family. Mary and her other sons had joined hands in regarding Jesus as crazy after He had refused to meet them. On the other hand, Jesus had responded by terming those interested in seeking the word of God as more important than His family. Mary’s experiences during Jesus’ ministry could also be used to highlight the difficulties that face families when there lacks a deep knowledge of the Gospel. Having known the role that Jesus would play in the salvation of mankind from the day the angel of the Lord visited her, Mary should have led her sons in supporting Jesus’ ministry.

Mary’s suffering during Jesus’ lifetime had been prophesied by Simeon. When the aged prophet met baby Jesus at the temple, he prophesied that Mary would suffer and experience pain in the course of Jesus’ ministry:

“This child is destined to cause the falling and rising of many in Israel and to be a sign that is spoken against. –yes, a sword will pierce your own soul too – so that the thoughts of many hearts will be revealed” (Luke 2:34-35)[11].

The prophecy that Mary’s soul would be pierced by a sword was fulfilled through her rather strained relationship with Jesus and His ministry. The prophecy could also be seen to have been fulfilled at the foot of the cross where Mary wept following her son’s crucifixion. The thoughts of Mary’s heart could also be seen to have been revealed through Jesus’ ministry. Although Mary “fell” when she listened to her sons, she later realized her mistake and accepted Jesus. In this regard, the thoughts of her heart were revealed.

Although Mary did not follow Jesus as He traveled and preached throughout Israel, her presence when He was arrested in Jerusalem underlines her love for her son. In the company of Jesus’ aunt, Mary was present throughout Jesus’ judgment process and witnessed His crucifixion at Golgotha. There is Biblical evidence indicating that Jesus reciprocated this love. While at the cross, Jesus reciprocated the love His mother had shown Him:

“Near the cross of Jesus stood His mother, His mother’s sister, Mary the wife of Cleophas, and Mary Magdalene. When Jesus saw His mother there, and the disciple whom He loved (John) standing nearby He said to His mother, “Dear woman, here is your son,” and to the disciple, “Here is your mother.” From that time on, this disciple took her into his home.” (John19:25-27)[12].

The Baptism of Mary

There is no Biblical reference to the baptism of Mary. Considering that Jesus had ordered all Christians to be baptized, however, it is particularly difficult to believe that Mary was not baptized. Like her mother, Mary was likely among the first Christians to be baptized by immersion as Jesus had instructed all Christians to do. As earlier indicated, however, there lacks a Biblical account of Mary’s baptism and as such, there is little that can be evaluated about the process.

The Death of Mary

Similar to her baptism, the Bible does not account for Mary’s death. According to some church records, John took Mary with him to Ephesus where she died and got buried. Largely due to the lack of credible evidence, the topic of Mary’s death remains divisive among scholars and the various church dominations.  The ‘Assumption of Mary’ is arguably one of the most renowned legends regarding the death of Mary. According to this account, Mary’s ascended to heaven in a similar manner as Jesus[13]. And while this account is popular in Christianity, it is critical to note that Biblical evidence opposes this supposition.

The Gospel of John’s declaration that “no man has ascended to heaven” could be used as evidence that Mary did not ascend to heaven as Jesus did[14]. It is hard to believe that John, who took care of Mary, would have declared that no one had descended to heaven had Mary did so. By the time John wrote the book, Mary was well over 100 years. Equally, it is hard to believe that Mary was still alive by the time John wrote the book. Apostle Paul also says that every human being shall be made alive on the day of resurrection each in their order. Considering that Mary was in every aspect a human being, it could be argued that she belongs among those who will be resurrected by Jesus and given eternal life[15].

Based on the above discussion of Mary’s death, it could also be conclusively asserted that Mary is not in heaven. This brings up an equally divisive topic over whether Christians should pray to her. According to available evidence, Mary did not rise to heaven and is sleeping in the dust with others waiting for the resurrection day[16]. In this regard, it could be regarded as wrong to pray to her since she cannot hear prayers. Praying to Mary further breaks one of God’s commandments that prohibit Christians from consulting the dead. Christians should consult God only.

The Lord’s Prayer as taught by Jesus to His disciples provides further evidence that Christians should not address their prayers to anyone else other than God. According to Jesus’ teachings, Christians should address their prayers to their “Father who art in Heaven”. When placed in this context, it is critical to note that Jesus did not instruct Christians to pray to Him[17]. There is no Biblical evidence indicating that prayers should be addressed to anyone else other than God. And although Christians can pray to God through Jesus, the same cannot be said of Mary[18].

Mary and the Book of Revelation

Some scholars have interpreted some symbols in the book of Revelation as referring to Mary. The book of revelation refers to a woman clothed with the sun and who appears to give birth to a son. According to some scholars, the woman referred to by this symbol is Mary. And although it is particularly difficult to ascertain whether that woman is Mary, it is important to refer to several Biblical phrases that could relate to the topic. Firstly, there appears to be a common acceptance that the son of the woman referred to in the book of Revelation is Jesus. When comparing the woman mentioned in Revelation with that mentioned in Genesis, it could be noted that this woman is probably faithful to Israel.

Further Biblical evidence indicates that this woman later became the spiritual mother of the church at Jerusalem. Following the ascension of the son of a woman, this woman was persecuted and this made her flee to the wilderness. When viewed from this point, it is more likely that the woman mentioned in the book of Revelation is the Israel faithful such as Jesus’ disciples and not Mary the mother of Jesus. This interpretation should, however, be taken as one of the many possible interpretations that can be made of the woman mentioned in Revelation.

Significance of Mary to Modern Christianity

Over the years, some scholars and Christianity faithful have advanced the belief that Mary is mother to the world. According to this supposition, Mary is an example of godly motherhood, and as such Christians are obliged to regard Mary as their mother. While addressing his audience during a mass at Saint Peter’s Square, Pope Francis once referred to Mary as the mother of Christians. According to the Pope, those who do not share this feeling ought to regard themselves as orphans. Expectedly, some scholars took issue with this statement as it seemed to violate the Scripture.

Although Mary serves an important role in modern Christianity as the model of motherhood, it is important to acknowledge that she does not have a role in the spiritual nourishment of Christians. On the contrary, Christians are nourished by the word of God through interaction with it and service to its course[19]. The supposition that those who do not regard Mary as their mother are orphans is also not true since it violates the teachings of Jesus as a record in the Bible. According to Romans 8:14-17, there are no orphans in Christ as all Christians have a Father in God. Based on this evidence, it could be noted that while Mary remains an important figure in Christianity, her role and significance should be interpreted cautiously.

Conclusion

Mary is with little doubt one of the most renowned figures in the Bible. Even among those who have never read the book, Mary is known for her role in the process through which God saved mankind. Being the mother of Jesus, Mary played an important role in Jesus’ upbringing and set an example to millions of Christians across the world on how to lead a life by God’s laws. Despite her popularity, however, Mary has been the center of a range of divisive topics in Christianity as scholars and believers seem to disagree on certain aspects of her life and significance to the religion. According to some scholars, Mary was a descendant of David and this ensured that ancient prophecy over the lineage of Jesus was fulfilled through her being the mother of Jesus. This supposition is, however, based on Luke’s genealogy of the ancestors of Jesus through Mary. Matthew’s genealogy of the ancestors of Jesus is different from that of Luke as the former traces this lineage through Solomon while the latter traces it through Nathan[20]. Although other scholars interpret that Luke was tracing Mary’s lineage, he was tracing that of Joseph. When viewed in this context, it is difficult to ascertain whether Mary was a descendant of David. It is, however, clear that Jesus was a descendant of David since there is Biblical evidence that Joseph was from David’s lineage[21].

Among the divisive topics concerning the life and significance of Mary include whether she conceived Jesus without any human agency. Other topics that have been particularly divisive include whether she similarly ascended to heaven and whether Christians should pray to her. As noted through the current biographical study, however, there is no evidence that Mary ascended to heaven. As such, Christians should not pray to her as Jesus instructed that all prayers be addressed to God. It is, therefore, important for Christians to acknowledge the significance of Mary for her role in the birth and upbringing of Jesus rather than for her spiritual completeness. This is because all descendants of Adam and Eve have sinned and fallen short of God’s glory.

Bibliography

Bockmuehl, Markus. “The son of David and his mother.” Journal of Theological Studies 62.2 (2011): 476-493.

Brown, Raymond, E., Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.), Mary in the New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978.

Dasnabedian, Thamar. “Mother of Christ the King and Her Influence, as Reflected in the Armenian Sharaknoc (Hymnary).” The Ecumenical Review 60.1/2 (2008): 53-58.

Hahn, Scott. Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001,

Kim, Stephen. “Encountering Jesus: Character Studies in the Gospel of John.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 53.4 (2010): 838-839.

Pagels, Elaine. “What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity.” Signs Journal 2.2 (1976): 293-303.

Pelikan, Jaroslav. Mary Through the Centuries: Her Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1998.

Procario-Foley, Elena. “In Quest of the Jewish Mary: The Mother of Jesus in History, Theology, and Spirituality.” Theological Studies 75.1 (2014): 171-173.

Ritva, Williams. “The Mother of Jesus at Cana: A social-science interpretation of John 2:1-12.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 59.4 (1997): 679-692.

The Holy Bible, New International Version. Grand Rapids. Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.

[1]
[1]         Procario-Foley, Elena. “In Quest of the Jewish Mary: The Mother of Jesus in History, Theology, and Spirituality.” Theological Studies 75.1 (2014): 172.

[2]
[2]          Procario-Foley, 173

[3]
[3]         Brown, Raymond,E.,Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.),Mary in the New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978.
[4]
[4]         Brown, Raymond,E.,Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.),Mary in the New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978.

[5]
[5]         Dasnabedian, Thamar. “Mother of Christ the King and Her Influence, as Reflected in the Armenian Sharaknoc (Hymnary).” The Ecumenical Review 60.1/2 (2008): 55.

[6]
[6]         Hahn, Scott. Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001,
[7]
[7]         Dasnabedian, 56

[8]
[8]         Hahn, Scott. Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001,

[9]
[9]         Ritva, Williams. “The Mother of Jesus at Cana: A social-science interpretation of John 2:1-12.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly59.4 (1997): 681

[10]
            [10]         The Holy Bible, New International Version

[11]
[11]          The Holy Bible, New International Version

[12]
[12]          The Holy Bible, New International Version

[13]
[13]          Pagels, Elaine. “What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity.” Signs Journal 2.2 (1976): 298

[14]
[14]         Pagels, 299

[15]
[15]         Pelikan, Jaroslav. Mary Through the Centuries: Her Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1998.

[16]
[16]          Bockmuehl, Markus. “The son of David and his mother.” Journal of Theological Studies 62.2 (2011): 478.

[17]
[17]         Bockmuehl, 479

[18]
[18]         Pelikan, Jaroslav. Mary Through the Centuries: Her Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press, 1998.
[19]
[19]         Kim, Stephen. “Encountering Jesus: Character Studies in the Gospel of John.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society53.4 (2010): 838.

[20]
[20]          Procario-Foley, Elena. “In Quest of the Jewish Mary: The Mother of Jesus in History, Theology, and Spirituality.” Theological Studies 75.1 (2014): 172.

[21]
[21]          Procario-Foley, 173

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St Augustine is one of the most significant figures in the history of Christianity as his works had a great influence on the development of the Western church. Of his many works, Augustine is probably best remembered for his writings in response to widespread heresy that had threatened to destabilize the church in the early 4^th century. This heresy had been started by Pelagius, a British believer who emphasized personal holiness over the saving grace of God. In response to this rather controversial proposition, Augustine developed what was later referred to as “Augustine’s theology of grace”.

Pelagius’ criticism of the moral laxity in the early church began after he found Augustine’s statement “Give what thou commandest, and command what thou wilt” to be offensive[1]. The statement as contained in the Confessions, a spiritual autobiography written by Augustine, emphasized the power that God had over man and the inability of a man to do good without God’s grace. Pelagius’ doctrine of grace contradicted that of the early church. Fearing that Pelagius’ doctrine could corrupt the church, Augustine embarked on a life-long defense of God’s grace and its necessity in man’s salvation. The demanding nature of this mission made Augustine make some of the most profound and controversial theological assertions. Given this, the current paper discusses Augustine’s theology of grace as a response to Pelagius and the impact it had on the development of the early church.

Pelagius and Pelagianism

Little is known about the personal life of Pelagius. According to some early writings, Pelagius was a British monk and theologian who moved to Rome during the period around c.380. While in Rome, Pelagius worked as a spiritual director and became a highly regarded religious figure due to his intellectual ability. As a person who exercised rigorous asceticism, Pelagius was greatly disturbed by the moral laxity of the Church in Rome. According to him, this moral laxity had resulted from the teachings and beliefs advanced by the doctrine of divine grace as written by St Augustine[2]. Opposed to the doctrine, Pelagius attacked the teachings of the church and accused its leadership of jeopardizing the entire moral law.

According to Pelagius’ teachings which were later referred to as Pelagianism, man is basically of good moral nature. Based on this supposition, Pelagius argued that a man can live without sin. Pelagius went ahead and gave examples of men in the Bible who lived without sin. While providing these examples, he relied on the fact that the Bible does not provide incidents when these men sinned. Pelagius’ doctrine of grace had several other controversial suppositions.  According to his doctrine, Adam would still have died regardless of whether he sinned or not. Additionally, Adam’s sin did not hurt the entire human race but rather himself only. From this understanding of the origin of sin, Pelagius argued that the human race does not die as a result of Adam’s sin and neither does resurrect through Jesus. Overall, his teaching on grace appeared to borrow more from the fields of psychology and sociology than from theology.

Augustine’s Response to Pelagius

Augustine’s work, particularly his anti-Pelagian writings, played a significant role in stabilizing the early church and preventing the spread of potentially harmful heresy. His anti-Pelagian writings collectively formed what is referred to as Augustine’s theology of grace. While these writings were rooted in his personal experiences, they hugely borrowed from the Scripture and this made them integral to the teachings of the early church. According to Augustine, every good work is the work of God because it is Him who gives human beings the ability to do that which is good[3]. In this regard, it is who God works within human beings to advance that which is good. While human beings can act as they wish, God brings about the power to do so. The good deeds of man are, therefore, the work of God in the sense that it is Him who provides the power.

By describing man’s merits as God’s gifts, Augustine argued that God does not regard these merits as belonging to man but rather to Himself since it is only through His gifts that they are realized[4]. Based on this supposition, Augustine noted that it is only through God’s grace that man’s good deeds can be viewed as actually belonging to the man. God’s grace is, therefore, integral and necessary in the life of man as it is only through it that man can get salvation. Augustine’s understanding of grace contradicted that of Pelagius who had argued against the need for divine intervention in man’s salvation. According to Pelagius, salvation is humanistic and as such, it is realized through good deeds only. In this regard, God’s grace is not necessary for human beings to break away from sin and achieve salvation. Pelagius further argued that God’s grace serves to help human beings obey His commands but cannot be used to save anyone. By describing grace in this way, Pelagius regarded it as internal and sin as external. When comparing his line of thought with that of Augustine, however, it is clear that Pelagius missed an important point by describing man’s deeds as independent of the will and power of God. As the source of life, God has always influenced man’s will and actions as it is from Him that the ability to think and act comes from.

According to Augustine, grace is necessary for human beings as they inherited Adam’s sin. After creating man, God gave him all the human faculties that he still possesses. Among these faculties, free will was the most significant as it would determine whether man retained the uprightness he was created with. By freely giving the man his uprightness and the grace with which to retain it, God could be seen to have put the man on probation. Rather than use the faculty of free will to advance his uprightness, man used it to sin and in doing so involved the whole human race. It is because of his sin that physical and spiritual death fell a man and passed over to the entire human race. Through the teachings of Scripture, Augustine noted that he was certain that all generations of Adam had inherited his sin and the condemnation that followed it. In this regard, it could be termed a fact that no one from Adam’s generation is free from the condemnation that followed his sin.

Although Augustine did not specifically indicate how human beings became partakers of Adam’s sin, his writings appear to point several possible explanations for this phenomenon. In some texts, he appears to attribute the phenomenon to the fact that human beings are united by race. In this regard, the whole human race was present in the person of Adam when he sinned. In other texts, Augustine appears to suppose that human beings inherited sin through nature. Adam corrupted nature which in turn corrupts human beings through the ways it communicates to them. There are also writings where Augustine seems to attribute the phenomenon to simple heredity. Regardless of how human beings came to inherit Adam’s sin, Augustine notes that sin is propagated within generations as a result of the connection mankind has with Adam[5].

Due to the inherited sin nature, human beings lost the divine image that God had created them with. And although not all of it was lost, Adam’s sin meant that human beings had to rely on God to do anything truly good. Sin further made injured the faculty of will as God had originally designed it, and this made man prone to the power of Satan. Since the free will suffered as a result of the original sin, man could no longer desire and choose anything but evil. For him to desire and do anything well, the man had to first be freed by God’s grace. Augustine’s proposition on how the original sin necessitated God’s grace in man appears to be in line with modern psychology. An evil man remains evil even in their willing the same way a good man remains good both in will and deed.

In its simplest form, Augustine defined grace as God’s assistance to man’s salvation. This assistance entails all forms of external help that God uses to support the course of man’s desire to break away from sin. Among the forms of help that God advanced to man include forgiveness, the law, Christ’s death, and the gospel[6]. This assistance also includes the guidance of the Holy Spirit which works within man to enable him to choose what is good by the law and gospel. It is only through the assistance of the Holy Spirit that man can overcome the temptation to sin. In this regard, the Holy Spirit as a form of God’s assistance differentiates Christians from other men.

The impact of grace on man by its nature. As earlier noted, grace is the principle set forth by God to aid the redemption of man from sin. Based on this description, Augustine noted that grace cannot be viewed as a series of unrelated gifts but rather as constant assistance from God. While this is the most complete view of grace, it can also be viewed in terms of the sequential effects it has on a man. The first effect of grace on man is bringing about faith. Through faith, the forgiveness of sin is realized and this allows an individual to do what is good. Other effects of grace on man include love to God, perseverance to the end, and progressive power to do what is good. When it is bestowed on man, grace is both irresistible and indefectible. For example, Augustine argued that faith in God is irresistible to those on whom grace has been bestowed.

Since grace is given to no preceding merits, it can then be argued that God foreknew that man would need His grace even before the actual need arose[7].  According to Augustine, God would be something less than an eternal God had he not known from the beginning that man would need His grace. Based on this line of thought, it could also be argued that God knew the specific individuals to whom He would give grace. And while men may describe the predestinated nature of God’s grace as fate, Augustine argued that this view can hardly be held as true. According to him, God’s grace is undeserved love and tender mercy that God expressed to mankind and without which no one would be saved.

Controversial Assertions in Augustine’s Theology of Grace

Although Augustine’s theology of grace played an integral role in uniting and developing the early church, there are controversial assertions that resulted from his doctrine. The most controversial of these assertions is probably his view on those who died unbaptized. Augustine described as lost all those who died unbaptized. He further asserted that those who died unbaptized but who were guilty of the original sin only would be given the lightest punishment. And while these assertions could have been necessitated by the need to highlight the significance of baptism in Christianity, it is critical to note that they created notable controversy and to an extent painted badly Augustine’s theology of grace[8]. Given his description of God’s grace, one would note that it is extremely difficult to assert with any degree of certainty what will happen to those who died unbaptized.

As earlier noted, Augustine’s belief on the significance of baptism in Christianity could have forced him to make the controversial assertions. According to him, baptism was the only way through which salvation and incorporation into the visible church could be realized. Interestingly, however, it is only through his theology of grace that Christians could learn that the invisible church of God is more accommodating than the visible church which is a human institution[9]. In this regard, God’s grace as manifested through the death of His son was enough to save those who had died unbaptized but who believed in His word. Baptism could, therefore, be described as a physical sign of salvation and as such less significant compared to the inner belief and acceptance of God’s word. By expressing His grace outside of the conventional channels, God regards as His children those who die before they get the opportunity to be baptized and attain physical salvation.

Based on the above analysis, it could be noted that Augustine’s controversial assertions resulted from his rather strong emphasis on adherence to the beliefs and traditions of the visible church and insufficient regard for the invisible church of God. Due to the threat posed by Pelagianism, Augustine included in his theology of grace assertions he probably did not believe to be true. The flaws in his theology and how they came to highlight the impact that Pelagianism had on the early church.  Although Pelagius did not succeed in instilling his doctrine of grace in Christianity, his thoughtful interpretation of Scripture threatened to jeopardize the progress of the early church. The response from key figures such as Augustine was, therefore, highly likely to contain controversial assertions as Pelagius had identified and criticized the inconsistent nature of some early church teachings.

Relevance to Modern Christianity

Augustine’s theology of grace has had a notable impact on Christianity throughout history. Partly due to the interpretation advanced by Augustine, the doctrine of original sin remains a divisive topic in modern Christianity. Although a significant number of scholars in the history of Christianity have argued that children remain sinless until they reach a certain age when they can distinguish between good and evil, it is critical to note that this assertion is inconsistent with the Scripture. And while this supposition appears to counter Augustine’s controversial assertion that infants depart into eternal punishment, it is not based on any Biblical teachings and as such cannot be held as true. Based on Augustine’s theology of grace, it could be argued that children are born in sin since they are all descendants of Adam. If those who die in infancy will go to heaven, they will do so because of God’s grace as manifested through the death of Jesus Christ.

The interpretation of man’s free-will by some scholars could also be described when viewed in the context of Augustine’s theology of grace. Some modern scholars and critics of the Bible have argued that man’s faculty of free-will as given by God gave human beings the capacity to determine what is good and evil[10]. According to Augustine, however, man’s free-will was not entirely free as it was bound in sin. This assertion was later advanced by Martin Luther in his work “The Bondage of the Will”. In defense of Augustine’s theology of grace, Martin Luther noted God does not save an individual based on their level of faith but rather because of His mercy and grace to mankind. In this regard, nothing in a man motivates God to save him from sin. The supposition that man can work up his faith and merit God’s salvation is, therefore, inconsistent with teachings from the Scripture. As such, there is a need for modern Christians to understand and acknowledge the fact that salvation results from God’s grace and does not depend on how an individual works up to their faith.

Going forward, it is highly likely that Augustine’s theology of grace will become even more significant to the church’s stability. In the recent past, some scholars and key church leaders have warned that modern Christianity is at risk of becoming semi-Pelagian. According to Pope Francis, contemporary forms of Pelagianism can be observed from how human beings have become so indulged in themselves that they appear to acknowledge the significance of God’s grace. In this regard, while self-help courses can be integral in improving quality of life, they should not serve to minimize the power of grace since it is only through it that Christians can flourish in faith. Overall, as concern over the existence of contemporary forms of Pelagianism continues to build, one would expect the relevance of Augustine’s theology of grace to grow.

Conclusion

St Augustine is one of the most significant figures in the history of Christianity as his works had a great influence on the development of the Western church. Of his many works, Augustine is probably best remembered for his writings in response to widespread heresy that had threatened to destabilize the church in the early 4^th century. Augustine’s doctrine of the origin of sin formed the basis of the doctrinal controversy between him and Pelagius. While Pelagius believed that man is born without sin and can as such life without it, Augustine argued that Adam’s sin enslaved mankind to it and as such all men are born with a sinful nature. According to Pelagius, man can choose to do good by exercising his free will accordingly and does not, therefore, need God’s grace to achieve salvation. Augustine opposed this assertion and argued that man’s sinful nature makes it impossible for him to choose the good without relying on the assistance of God’s grace. Considering the notable flaws in Pelagius’ doctrines, it could be noted that his teaching on grace and salvation was particularly erratic. In response to these misleading doctrines, Augustine developed some of the most consistent doctrines of the early church. His thoughtful analysis of Scripture and ability to provide reliable guidance on rather controversial issues earned him the title “Doctor of Grace”.

 Bibliography

Augustine, Roland J. Teske, & Boniface Ramsey. Selected Writings on Grace and Pelagianism. Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 2011.

Cary, Phillip. Inner Grace: Augustine in the Traditions of Plato and Paul. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Dreyer, Elizabeth. Manifestations of Grace. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1990.

Dupont, Anthony. Preacher of Grace: A Critical Reappraisal of Augustine’s Doctrine of Grace in His Sermones Ad Populum on Liturgical Feasts and During the Donatist Controversy. Leiden, MA: Brill, 2014.

Harrison, Carol. Rethinking Augustine’s Early Theology: An Argument for Continuity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Heans, Simon. “Original Sin or Original Sinfulness? A Comment.” Heythrop Journal 54.1 (2013): 55-69.

Lam Cong Quy, Joseph. “Revelation, Christology, and Grace in Augustine’s Anti-Manichean and Anti-Pelagian Controversies.” Phronema 28.2 (2013): 131-149.

Thiselton, Anthony C. The Thiselton Companion to Christian Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2015.

[1]
[1] Cary, Phillip. Inner Grace: Augustine in the Traditions of Plato and Paul (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008), p.188

[2]
[2] Augustine, Roland J. Teske, & Boniface Ramsey. Selected Writings on Grace and Pelagianism(Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 2011), p.42

[3]
[3] Dupont, Anthony. Preacher of Grace: A Critical Reappraisal of Augustine’s Doctrine of Grace in His Sermones Ad Populum on Liturgical Feasts and During the Donatist Controversy (Leiden, MA: Brill, 2014), p.112

[4]
[4] Dupont, p.115

[5]
[5] Heans, Simon. “Original Sin or Original Sinfulness? A Comment.” Heythrop Journal 54.1 (2013): 59

[6]
[6] Dreyer, Elizabeth. Manifestations of Grace (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1990), p.31

[7]
[7] Lam Cong Quy, Joseph. “Revelation, Christology, and Grace in Augustine’s Anti-Manichean and Anti-Pelagian Controversies.” Phronema 28.2 (2013): 141

[8]
[8] Harrison, Carol. Rethinking Augustine’s Early Theology: An Argument for Continuity (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008), p.61

[9]
[9]  Harrison, p.63

[10]
[10] Thiselton, Anthony C. The Thiselton Companion to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2015), p.89

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Many so-called progressive Christians have a problem with the Old Testament in the Bible. Some Christians argue that the Old Testament was written many years ago rendering most of its content irrelevant in this modern world. However, there is a much bigger issue. There are some Christians and even non-Christians who criticize Old Testament as misogynistic and demeaning to women. Misogynistic is derived from the word ‘misogyny’ which refers to hatred for women[1]. In this case, the issue of whether the Old Testament is misogynistic and demeaning to women or not is very tricky and requires skeptical analysis of the scriptures and other related literature. Therefore, this paper will focus on the allegation that Old Testament is misogynistic and demeaning to women

Is Old Testament Misogynistic and Demeaning to Women?

            The idea that the Old Testament is misogynistic and demeaning to women is misguided. Throughout the Bible, we do not find a God who is gender-specific but one who loves all the people. The Ten Commandments is proved God’s love and respect for all people. For instance, in the fifth commandment, God commands children to honor both of their parents[2]. He does not say ‘father’ but ‘parents,’ meaning both the mother and the father. In addition to that, we find God warning against coveting the other man’s wife[3]. Categorically, God states, you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife[4]. By warning other men against desiring another man’s wife, God was protecting the dignity of married women.

Critics of the Old Testament argue that God treats women like property owned by a man. The criticism is based on the payment of dowry to the girl’s father. The term ‘bride-price’ which has been repeatedly used in the current Bible translation sounds as if the daughter is a product for sale or merchandise. However, a deeper and critical look at the Bible in the same Old Testament proves otherwise. A better analysis of the term ‘mohar’ which was used in the first Hebrew Bible translates to ‘marriage gift’ rather than ‘bride-price’. The marriage gift was like a deposit given to the father. For that matter, by giving the gift, the groom showed devotion and commitment rather than pay for the merchandise. Also, paying the mohar was an act of good faith to show the girl’s family that he is not taking their daughter as a sexual object but rather a life partner[5].

The issue of women as prisoners of war or spoils of war is critical to this discussion. In Deuteronomy 20: 13-14, the Bible says, “And when the LORD your God gives it into your hand, you shall put all its males to the sword, but the women and the little ones, the livestock, and everything else in the city, all its spoil, you shall take as plunder for yourselves. And you shall enjoy the spoil of your enemies, which the LORD your God has given you.”[6] In the next chapter, God describes a scenario where a man comes across a beautiful woman in the war and wants to take her home to become his wife. God gives very clear instructions to be followed under such circumstances. All these scriptures are interpreted by most people as an act of misogyny and also demeaning to women[7].

It is important to mention that the law was not meant to be perfect. However, it was meant to represent God in the sinful nature of human beings[8]. It would have been great if we all lived in a perfect world where everyone loved each other and hence lived in peace. There would be no war. However, the reality is different. Even in these Biblical times, there were wars everywhere. Men were directly involved in combat, and that meant they were casualties of war. That means that if your side was defeated, most of the women were left windows with no prospects of marriage. Hence, taking women as spoils of war was aimed at protecting them. In Deuteronomy 20: 1-12, we are told that the Israelite soldiers were not supposed to leave these women to feed themselves. So, by taking them, they ensured that they were fed and protected[9].

Taking the women as prisoners of war can be considered as taking the women as slaves or captives. However, the reality stands out differently. The women captured were allowed to shave and cut their nails, all by themselves. Also, they removed their clothes of captivity by themselves and mourned for their parents for a full month. The period of mourning was important in making the transition into new life. More importantly, if the man were not satisfied by the woman, he could not sell her off as a slave. The woman was to remain in Israel protected from any mistreatment[10].

Raping of female prisoners was allowed by the Eastern cultures surrounding the Israelites. However, the Law of Moses barred the Israelite soldiers from such acts. The Israelites were not allowed to have even sex with a beautiful female captive or even marry her quickly. Therefore, the culture of lust was discouraged among the Israelites even in the face of war.

Sexual morality is also a very controversial issue in the Bible. Some texts in the Book of Deuteronomy have been used to depict the whole Old Testament as demeaning to women. Some laws administered in this book are considered arbitrary and insensitive to women[11]. Deuteronomy 23: 13-21 talks of virginity among women. The scripture describes the process to be followed in case a man took a woman and found a problem with her virginity that was a mark of purity[12]. The scripture talks of displaying the evidence for virginity among the elders. Such an act is humiliating to the woman, even in circumstances when all the allegations are not true. However, before rushing to condemn the law, it is important to evaluate it for the merits and demerits.

First of all, such a lengthy process of ascertaining the truth of the matter would prevent men from making a false accusation for a matter that has tough penalties. Hence, we can say, since the law is said to be oppressive to women, it at the same time protects them against false accusations[13]. The law also promoted honesty and purity in marriage. In those times and even today, God highly commands us to maintain purity in our marriages. For that matter, maintaining virginity among the Israelites was one way of ensuring honesty and purity in the marriage.

Thirdly and most importantly, the same law did not allow men to divorce their wives. This is a fact is often overlooked. The culture required the man to provide and protect his wife. Therefore, a woman with a husband was considered stable in society. Protection against divorce was a privilege that not many women in other cultures enjoyed[14].

Polygamy is a critical issue in this whole discussion. Many critics of the old Testaments condemn it for endorsing polygamy. Polygamy is seen to diminish the value of women. Therefore, agreeing that Old Testament endorses polygamy is the same as saying it is demeaning to women. A historical and cultural background will help understand the fact that Old Testament does not endorse polygamy.

Exodus 21:7-11 “When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do.  If she does not please her master, who has designated her for himself, then he shall let her be redeemed. He shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people since he has broken faith with her….”[15] A look at the scripture seems to allow the master to practice polygamy. However, it is important to point out that the law at the time was casuistic which is evidence by use of ‘if” clause. Hence, in this scripture, God talks of how he wants to see the affairs. If you continue reading the scripture, the son of the master is mentioned. That is to say, the slave daughter is being taken as the second wife. However, there is a possibility that the master’s wife is dead[16].

The other scripture in the Old Testament that touches on polygamy is Deuteronomy 21:15-17…. “If a man has two wives, the one loved, and the other unloved, and both the loved and the unloved have borne him children, and if the firstborn son belongs to the unloved, then on the day when he assigns his possessions as an inheritance to his sons, he may not treat the son of the loved as the firstborn in preference to the son of the unloved, who is the firstborn, but he shall acknowledge the firstborn, the son of the unloved, by giving him a double portion of all that he has, for he is the first-fruits of his strength. The right of the firstborn is his.”[17]

Although the critics can use this scripture to conclude that the Old Testament endorses polygamy, it is important to consider few points. First, the scripture does not mention if the two wives are alive. More importantly, the law recognizes the problems that are likely to arise whenever a man has more than one wife. One of the problems is loving one wife more than the other. Hence, God warns us through the scripture of the consequences of being in a polygamous marriage. In the book of Genesis, we are told the story of Jacob and how he married two wives. We see later in the same book the wives competing on who will give him more sons. Also, Leah was unloved while Rachel was the loved one. This is in no way a picture of a beautiful marriage[18].

Conclusion

Conclusively, the idea of the old testament being misogynistic and demeaning to women is untrue and based on a wrong interpretation of scriptures or judging the scriptures based on the modern context instead of the ancient one[19]. God commands children to honor both of their parents. In addition to that, it addresses their needs even in the time of the war. From this discussion, it is also evident that the Old Testament does not in any way support or endorses polygamy as held by the critics.

Bibliography

Bach, Alice. Women in the Hebrew Bible a Reader. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

Bohlin, Sue. “Christianity: The Best Thing That Ever Happened to Women.” Bible.org. 2005.      Accessed September 15, 2015. https://bible.org/article/christianity-best-thing-ever- happened-women.

Copan, Paul. Is God a Moral Monster?: Making Sense of the Old Testament God. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2011.

Lefebvre, Matt. “The Relevance of the Old Testament-Is God Misogynistic?” Warranted Belief.   August 20, 2011. Accessed September 15, 2015.             https://warrantedbelief.wordpress.com/2011/08/20/the-relevance-of-the-old-testament-is-

Pinker, Aron. “Qohelet’s Views on Women—Misogyny or Standard Perceptions? An Analysis of Qohelet 7,23–29 and 9,9.” Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2012, 157-91.

Summers, Anne. The Misogyny Factor. [America’s ed. Sydney, N.S.W.: NewSouth Pub., 2013.

[1]Summers, Anne. The Misogyny Factor.

[2]Exodus 20:2-17 ESV.

[3] Ibid

[4]Exodus 20:2-17 ESV.

[5]Copan, Paul. Is God a Moral Monster?: Making Sense of the Old Testament God. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2011.

[6]Deuteronomy 20: 13-14

[7] Ibid

[8]Lefebvre, Matt. “The Relevance of the Old Testament-Is God Misogynistic?” Warranted Belief.

[9]Deuteronomy 20: 1-12 ESV.

[10]Copan, Paul. Is God a Moral Monster?: Making Sense of the Old Testament God.

[11]Bach, Alice. Women in the Hebrew Bible a Reader. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

[12]Deuteronomy 23: 13-21 ESV.

[13]Bohlin, Sue. “Christianity: The Best Thing That Ever Happened to Women,”

[14]Pinker, Aron. “Qohelet’s Views on Women—Misogyny or Standard Perceptions? An Analysis of Qohelet 7,23–29 and 9,9.”

[15]Exodus 21:7-11 ESV

[16]Lefebvre, Matt. “The Relevance of the Old Testament-Is God Misogynistic?” Warranted Belief.

[17]Deuteronomy 21:15-17 ESV

[18]Lefebvre, Matt. “The Relevance of the Old Testament-Is God Misogynistic?” Warranted Belief.

[19]Copan, Paul. Is God a Moral Monster?: Making Sense of the Old Testament God.

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1 Peter 3:18-22 is arguably one of the most discussed and problematic passages in the New Testament (NT). The scripture has attracted the attention of scholars, thereby resulting in the development of varied interpretations. A careful analysis of this passage reveals that one can understand it from different perspectives. For example, a reader is most likely to conclude from this scripture that people have immortal souls. In other words, a person has another opportunity for salvation after death. The other possible interpretation of this passage is that Jesus went to hell and came up again. Since there is no extensive consensus on the correct interpretation of this scripture, it is relatively difficult for one to precisely determine the appropriate interpretation of the passage. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief exposition of 1 Peter 3:18-22, focusing on specific hermeneutical elements.

The first aspect that will be discussed in this exposition relates to the historical background of 1 Peter 3:18-22. Noticeably, it is suggested that the entire of 1 Peter is a baptismal hymn that places much emphasis on describing the concept of salvation.[1] Therefore, the historical background of 1 Peter 3:18-22 has to be traced back to Paul’s view about the idea of salvation. A critical evaluation of this passage reveals that Paul sought to label suffering as the primary focus and salvation from condemnation as the underlying cause of the hardships experienced by Christians as well as its definitive purpose. It is worth noting that at the time Paul was writing the I Peter, many Christians were facing persecution and trials due to their belief system. Consequently, anyone who followed Christ was psychologically prepared to die for Christ.

The second element that will be examined in this essay about 1 Peter 3:18-22 is the literary context. In verse 18, the speaker refers to the anguish, death, and resurrection of Jesus. On the other hand, the speaker alludes to the ascension and resurrection of Jesus in verse 22. Therefore, it is correct to conclude these two verses constitute a parenthesis in which Paul inserted one section into another part. A further in-depth evaluation of verse 18 indicates that the speaker focused on describing the earthly life of Jesus, whereas verses 21 and 22 emphasize explaining the heavenly aspect. In verses 19-20, the insertion mentions the proclamation of Jesus, while verse 21 alludes to baptism. Markedly, this scripture, as a whole, tells believers that Christ has saved them from sin, and He is now in control of their lives. Therefore, Christians should not be worried or lose hope in their faith, despite the suffering.

Further critical analysis of 1 Peter 3:18-22 indicates that the speaker used early Christian and Jewish literature to discuss the aspect of salvation. It is apparent from this passage that there are at least three pieces of evidence that connect its original Christian writings, and about the identification of the people who receive the proclamation of Christ. In particular, these proofs are the spirits, imprisonment of spirits, and the individuals who were categorized as sinners during the days of the era. It is imperative to note that the descriptions provided in the foregoing discussion do not accurately identify the receivers of Christ’s proclamation. One could argue that the “spirits” described in this passage refer to what arises from giants. In contrast, imprisonment is defined as the punishment that is usually linked with the “fallen angels.” Therefore, it is crucial to synthesize and review the applicable traditions from early Christian and Jewish literature. It is clear from the foregoing expository analysis of 1 Peter 3:18-22 that the speaker employs several literary devices to explain how suffering is a condition for salvation.

Bibliography

Hanson, Anthony. “Salvation Proclaimed: I Peter 3:18-22.”  Expository Times, vol. 93, no. 4 (1982).

[1] Anthony Hanson, “Salvation Proclaimed: I Peter 3:18-22,” Expository Times, 93, no. 4 (1982).

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The figurative expression of Old Testament prophecies and some of their manifestations rendered divine languages in simple and relatable human terminologies. Both the minor and major prophets in the Old Testament used metaphors to facilitate such simplicity of divine communication. It conveyed some metaphors in familiar and self-explanatory contexts, while others remained unfamiliar, confusing, and sometimes disturbing. The latter category of metaphors portrays God in ways that seem contradictory to His nature. An example would be the case where God is portrayed as a hateful parent in Hosea 11: 5-7 despite the universal knowledge that he is a loving father (Hos 11: 4). Of interest in this write-up is an exploration of the prophetic rhetoric for these metaphors to identify the different ways in which the metaphorical images intersect and build off each other. Five prophetic books of Ezekiel, Isaiah, Daniel, Hosea, and Jeremiah have been considered. These prophets present diverse forms of metaphors to establish the character of God or the nature of His relationship with the people. Drawing upon specific Bible verses, the present article provides a sharp critique of the Old Testament prophetic rhetoric, paying significant attention to the fullness of metaphorical messages across the prophetic books mentioned above.

The Metaphor of Marriage

Theme of marriage abounds in the prophetic corpus. The book of Jeremiah provides a rich ground for exploring the metaphor of marriage in God-human relationships. The pact between God and His people is often portrayed as the relationship between the husband and the wife. Jeremiah best describes a monogamous marriage between God and Israel in chapter 2. He writes, “I remember the loyalty of your youth, your love as a bride in a land not sown. Israel was holy to the LORD, the first fruits of His harvest.” (Jer 2:2–3)

As the husband, God meets his matrimonial duties of providing for the needs of the wife, uplifts the wife, and expects her compliance with the Lord’s plans. Also clear in this section is the value that God gives to Israel, his wife. In the metaphor, God likens the wife to ‘first fruits of the harvest,’ which, consistent with Leviticus 22: 10-16, is evidence that Israel was God’s priority from among the rest of the tribes, or His first-choice possession. Jeremiah’s portrayal of this divine marriage builds on the earlier description provided by Prophet Isaiah, who stated that “Your husband is your maker – his name is Yahweh of Hosts” (Isa 54:5). Jeremiah continues to recognize how Israel contradicts God’s expectations and proves to be unfaithful. He mentions the Israelites’ desire to ‘follow useless idols’ (Jer 2:8). Prophet Hosea builds upon Jeremiah’s prophecy by marrying a harlot called Gomer. Marital union between Gomer and Hosea is metaphorical and symbolizes Israelites’ infidelity to God as evidenced by their preference for ‘useless idols’ (Jer 2: 8).

Figurative language, as used to describe marriage in the sections above, takes the form of direct metaphors. The direct metaphors are suited to these religious contexts because they are a primary means through which the Israelites could conceptualize the unknown religious situations to what is already known. What a direct metaphor does is portray one thing (A) in terms of another (B) when in fact they do not belong to the same domain. For instance, God as the husband (God= A; husband = B). These two elements belong to different domains; one of which Israel already comprehends (husband) and another which they do not relate to on a deeper level (God). God belongs to the divine domain, and very few Israelites would claim to have direct knowledge of his feelings. However, the Husband is in the domain of humanity and everyone has a direct understanding of how a human husband feels towards the wife. Therefore, Israelites could understand the Lord’s feelings towards them by comparing his emotions to those of a human husband to the wife.

The Metaphor of Adultery

The metaphors in the prophetic corpus also bear theme of sexual perversion. Overall, the prophets use the word ‘prostitution’ to symbolize Israel’s spiritual unfaithfulness to God (Hos: 4: 14; Eze 23; Isa 23: 15-18). Still, there are nuanced differences in the aspects of prostitution in different prophetic contexts. For instance, Hosea believes that prostitution is more than Gomer’s infidelity. He asserts that prostitution describes the behavioral departure, estrangement, and lack of spiritual effort desired by God. It may also mean inconsistencies or incongruous tendencies, cultic practices, and other forms of spiritual defilement. Therefore, Hosea’s metaphor of unfaithfulness was a composite of all the different behaviors adopted by the Israelites that distanced them from God.

In Jeremiah, the same metaphorical portrayal of unfaithfulness as general wickedness persists. Most of the mentions of unfaithfulness in Jer 2: 1-4 to Jer 4 are about the prophetic messages condemning the absurd, senseless, purposeless, and sometimes ridiculous tendencies that were widespread in Judah. Israel is symbolic of the purposelessness of an adulterous woman who is bound to remain directionless because of the lack of a man as the head. A promiscuous woman is directionless because she has not pledged her loyalty to a single man who can give her a sense of direction. As mentioned in the earlier sections, God is supposed to be Israel’s husband (Isa 54: 5). However, following Israel’s unfaithfulness, she gets separated from God (Isa. 50: 1). Therefore, like an unfaithful woman, Israel lacks a sense of direction and cannot make meaningful progress as a nation.

From a deeper perspective, the metaphor of unfaithfulness qualifies more than a metonymy than a standard metaphor. This mode of expression seems to like two elements that belong to the same domain. For instance, unfaithfulness is an umbrella term for all the wickedness and religious shortcomings that characterized the relationship between God and the Israelites. Unfaithfulness in a woman manifests in different forms (A= sexual perversion, lies, lack of trust); but each of these elements make up unfaithfulness (B). Therefore, metonymy arises in using B in place of the elements covered under A. The purpose of using metonymy was to bring the Novice Israelites into understanding the different wickedness that strained their relationship with God, but which they could not otherwise understand.

The Unique Metaphors in the Book of Daniel

The metaphors in the Book of Daniel have a parallel structure to the ones presented in the earlier sections. The imagery in the prophecies of Daniel takes the form of dreams and visions. Dreams and visions are powerful elements of prophecy that remain relevant as God’s way of communicating with his people through the prophets. Several prophets have had dreams or visions because it is the Lord’s preferred means of communication to the people. He says: “Hear now my words: If there is a prophet amongst you, I, the Lord, make myself known to him in a vision; I speak to him in a dream” (Num 12:16).

It also considered dreams also as metaphor because their interpretation explains the metaphors that they carry in their messages. For instance, in Chapter 2 of Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar had a dream that was a secret from God, and the meaning of the dream could only be understood by first interpreting the metaphor. Daniel drew on the imagery of the dream to express what had been inexpressible to all the fortune-tellers in Nebuchadnezzar’s palace. Daniel confronted the King in verse 38 and declared, “You are this head of gold.” A king is the head of a kingdom, and the image of the head translates to a leader, or for the case of Nebuchadnezzar, the King. Also, the actions that happen in the dream will manifest in real life. The dream becomes a metaphor for actual life events.

Interpreting the metaphor in Daniel’s dream created another metaphor because the successive kings who would take after Nebuchadnezzar can be seen as hypothetical. It implies that the coded message in the prophecy can also be considered a parable. However, the parable does not disqualify the metaphorical aspect of the dream, regardless. Rather, like any other imagery, the parable compares two elements by portraying one as an indirect image of the other. That the juxtaposition of the kings with the leadership that would succeed Nebuchadnezzar qualifies Daniel’s dream as a metaphor rather than just an analogy. It is notable, however, that the metaphors in dreams are not restricted to the prophet’s interpretation. Some of Daniel’s visions revealed the complexity of metaphors. Some divine messages communicated to Daniel as visions were so complex that an angel of the Lord explained Daniel (Dan 6)

Conclusion

To sum up, understanding the writings of the Old Testament prophets requires a reader to be aware of the Jewish tradition and context of prophecy. This assertion cuts across the entire prophetic corpus because both the Minor and the Major Prophets used metaphors. One metaphor that is central to the OT prophecies is God’s relationship with the people of Israel portrayed as marriage. Jeremiah provides an elaborate use of marriage-divorce imagery to shed light on the quality of the relationship between God and Israel. Positive image of a groom’s unrelenting love for her bride is contrasted with the wife’s subsequent disloyalty. The challenging marriage is metaphorical of God’s desire to build close bonds with the Israelites despite the former’s persistent indifference. Other prophets also shared the image of a troubled relationship between God and Israel, such as Ezekiel, Hosea, and Isaiah. Each of these prophets likens the wife’s infidelity to Israel’s disloyalty to the Lord’s commandments.

In another metaphor, the unfaithfulness of Hosea’s adulterous wife is an umbrella term that summarizes different behavioral traits. An unfaithful wife lies about her movements, pretends in the presence of her spouse, feigns innocence, and does not appreciate her husband’s efforts to unify the family. These behavioral tendencies represent the actual practices that characterized Israel’s disloyalty to God. The Israelites worshipped idols but still cried to God for help when they encountered misfortunes. They also failed to recognize God’s effort at bringing them back to righteousness and instead played the victim for being cast out by God. It presented a different type of metaphorical writing is presented in the book of Daniel, where metaphors take the form of dreams and visions and their respective interpretations. This category of metaphors is clear in Daniel’s interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar’s dream.

It expressed some metaphors through writings from inspired prophets. However, the metaphorical coding of divine messages was not limited to direct speeches and ordinary writings. Rather, the statements were also codified in dreams and visions, as clear in Daniel 2. That the prophetic rhetoric uses metaphors in different forms. Despite the form taken by a metaphor, they served common purposes that can be summarized into three major functions. First, these metaphors transferred divine emotional attitudes in ways that the people of Israel could relate to. Second, the metaphors persuaded their targeted audience to pursue a specific course of action. Last, the metaphors enabled the audience or interpreters to make an expression of their cognitive insights by converting twisted knowledge into literal terms to understand normal human circumstances.

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The Old Testament’s witness to the Messiah remains a contested issue. At the heart of the debate are the differences in the contextual interpretations of the two testaments. A section of theologians argues Mosaic Law binds the Old Testament, for which reason its interpretations do not bear any correspondence to the Messianic age. In stark contrast are the theological opinions linking the Old Testament with prophecies of an eschatological Messiah. The latter school of thought perceives God’s work of salvation as a strategy that works through space and time, whereby different prophecies are set on different historical settings but fulfilled in different timelines in the future. On this account, some prophecies predict a God-sent king, who, in his uniqueness and Davidic dynasty, will bring glory to Israel. This discussion traces the Messianic vision to the Garden of Eden, where prophecy unveils that the seed of the woman shall bring forth a ruler to break the spell of sin. Thereafter, the article builds on a dynasty of David from where a king will rise to liberate all Israel from all bondage. The discussion closes by analyzing the person and role of the Messiah as prophesied by prophet Isaiah.

The Pentateuch

The OT prophecies about the Messiah in the book of Genesis do not single out a specific ruler. The dominant expectation in the book is that of an offspring of a woman, who will rise and lead Adam’s generation to victory. The Messianic vision is attributed to the seed of the woman (Gen 3: 15). The continuity of this anticipation becomes more defined as the Pentateuch progresses, and it becomes apparent that the collective offspring of Jacob will give rise to kings in the lineage of Judah. These kings will be pivotal to the realization of the Messianic victory. There is a great deal of consistency in this portrayal because several dynasties rose and disappeared in the Northern Kingdom while King David’s dynasty continued ruling over Judah for centuries until the Babylon conquest. Then from that very dynasty arose a renewed reign that continued the dynasty on spiritual dimensions. It implies that the Pentateuch had predicted how the leadership of Israel would unfold even before the ultimate reign of the Messiah.

Other than Genesis, different passages in the rest of the Pentateuch predict the coming of a single ruler. For instance, in numbers, Moses writes:

I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near: A star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel; it shall crush the forehead of Moab and break down all the sons of Sheth. Edom shall be dispossessed; Seir also, his enemies, shall be disposed of. Israel is doing valiantly. And one from Jacob shall exercise dominion and destroy the survivors of cities. (Num 24: 17-19).

The cosmic nature of this prophecy, coupled with the specific setting in which the prophecy was made, may obscure its meaning. However, there remains the possibility that the passage foreshadows a greater display of authority that will not have been seen in the generations that precede its unveiling. This authority foreshadows the reign of the Messiah.

David’s Lineage

The Messianic was also built upon the Old Testament prophecies that attributed the origins of the Messiah to the Davidic dynasty. When David seeks to establish a royal dynasty in Israel through his offspring, God makes a covenant with David to preserve that dynasty forever. However, while God’s commitment to the Davidic dynasty serves to keep the lineage intact, he is forced to punish the kings for their disregard of the Mosaic Law. It is on the grounds of these punishments that the dynasty ends following the Babylonian annex. However, God’s commitment to King David is that He would establish on him an everlasting Dynasty. So, while the Davidic kingship seems to cease when Babylonians conquer Israel, hope abounds that from David’s bloodline will spring an eternal of Israel.

Isaiah then brings a Davidic hope, prophesying that God will raise “a shoot from the stump of Jesse.” This prophecy hints at the new dawn to the Davidic dynasty the Babylonians had chopped that down. The new king from the Davidic dynasty would be set apart from his predecessors because he would reign. However, a mortal human being cannot rule forever. Therefore, the concept of ‘forever’ applies to spiritual matters. It is plausible that Isaiah’s reiteration of an eternal rule of the Messiah implied a Messianic kingdom that resonates with spirituality. Prophet Jeremiah also seen the spiritual aspect in the king’s description terming him as “Lord our righteousness.” (Jer 23: 6).

The Messianic hope presented through the Davidic dynasty reveals the Messiah would be a spiritual king. He will bring his people to righteousness, which reflects God’s redemptive power. The Davidic dynasty carries a continuous story of the Old Testament’s prediction of the Messiah. The expectations about Messiah that link to the Davidic dynasty are not exhaustive of what the Old Testament has to say about Jesus. It is just a single indicator among the many prophecies that point to the coming existence of Jesus Christ.

One area of concern regarding the Davidic associations with Messiah is on the person of Jesus Christ and his destiny. The Jewish interpretation of the Davidic Lineage built an expectation of an earthly king who would liberate Israel from the Roman conquest. Yet, prophecies show the king will establish a kingdom of righteousness by liberating the people from the bondage of sin. It is a central prophecy made by Isaiah when he writes the servant will bring salvation to the people (Isa: 52: 10).

Isaiah’s Prediction of the Person of Messiah and his Destiny

The book of Isaiah is among the many Old Testament books that were set in a unique setting while predicting the events in another. Isaiah made predictions of an eschatological Messiah under the theme of ‘The Servant of the Lord.’ Shall be four different passages in the book of Isaiah that differentiate the servant of the Lord. He makes the first two references in Isa. 42: 1-6 and 49: 1-3. He further mentions of the servant of the Lord in 50: 4-9 and 52: 13-53:12. Each of the passages builds off each other to create a complete picture of the Messianic role of the servant who, in order to save the people, must bear the burdens of their sins. Isaiah begins by establishing the mission of the servant (Isa 42: 1-6). With Isaiah as the mouthpiece, the speaker in verses 1-4 is God. It is God who designates the Messianic roles to the servant. One thing that becomes clear is the endowments of the servant with the spirit that will enable him to fulfill the demanding mission of being a fountain of Justice to all nations of the world.

The second passage highlights the obstacles awaiting the servant (Isa 49: 1-13). This passage is confusing at first reading because a shallow interpretation of the verse can lead to the understanding that the servant being described is Israel. However, that the servant is also assigned bringing Israel back to its God (Isa 49: 5) implies that the servant is an individual with the task to collect the Israelites under one identity, and not Israel itself. Up to this point, this second passage is expansive enough to include the role of the prophet Isaiah and that of the Messiah.

Then in the subsequent passages, the oracle reveals the servant will be condemned to afflictions (Isa 50: 4-9) and that the suffering will lead to his death (Isa 52-53). The unveiling of the actual identity of the servant as the Messiah builds from verse 13. Isa 52: 13 describes the exaltation of the servant, verse 14 on his unwarranted humiliation, and 15 on his impactful presence in the entire world. The elaborations of his supernatural preeminence are further highlighted in chapter 13. The chapter describes the servant’s ironic coming, humiliation, and suffering and his exaltation.

Still, there must be a distinction between the servant and any ordinary prophet for him to qualify as Messiah. This is where chapter 53 plays a significant role. In this chapter, the servant is likened to the arm of the Lord (Isa 53: 1), which can be understood by reviewing other portrayals of this arm elsewhere in Isaiah. Isa 40: 10 provides that the arm is seen to rule in the place of God. The arm will also be a source of trust for the Gentiles (Isa 51: 5), which as a result, will render the arm a redeemer (Isa 51: 9) and someone to provide salvation to the people (52: 10). These are consistent with the expectations of the true Messiah, implying that the servant being described is the Messiah.

It is noteworthy that Isa 50: 4-9 depicts the Messiah as afflicted without highlighting the reasons behind his suffering. However, in Isa 53, the reasons for the afflictions are mentioned. The prophet notes the Messiah would be wounded for the transgressions of Israel and be bruised for the iniquities of the people. This shows that the Messiah will end up as the sacrifice for the wrongdoings of the people, saving them from all iniquity and establishing an everlasting spiritual kingdom of righteous people.

Conclusion

In sum, a collection of verses in the Old Testament challenges the general perception that the Old Testament is focused on the Mosaic Law. A deeper analysis of these verses and how they relate with each other set forth a consistent, sweeping vision of the Messiah. Each of the many verses that bear the prophecies of Israel’s savior contributes to the bigger picture of who Messiah ought to be.

The Old Testament’s witness to Christ as the Messiah stretches from the Pentateuch to Malachi. Right after the fall of man, God promised that the seed of a woman would destroy the serpent. Humanity had just fallen victim to Satan’s deception by partaking in the deadly fruit that brings forth the knowledge of good and evil. Humanity was already enslaved in sin under heeding to Satan’s deception. Several millenniums later, Isaiah continued the prophecy of the seed of woman by proclaiming that a virgin would deliver a son named Immanuel (Isa: 714). Immanuel would restore victory to Ephraim if ‘the land of the two kings that Israel dreads will be laid to waste’ (Isa 7: 16). These verses reinforce each other in supporting the OT prophecies about the Messiah.

OT themes such as the Davidic dynasty and the suffering servant further add details to the prophecies about the origin, personality, purpose, and destiny of the Messiah. Messiah would spring from the Davidic dynasty and lead a life of suffering and dejection in the quest to bear the transgressions of humanity. The intertextuality of selected OT passages sets a rich ground for understanding the OT witness about the Messiah. When the different small prophecies that were written in different historical settings merge, the Old Testament is indeed a coherent literary work, inspired to reveal the intrinsic glory of the Messiah.

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In the first letter to Corinthians, Paul offered notable insights on the notion of love with regards to the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ. It is one of the widely quoted and referenced Epistles of Paul due to its comprehensive coverage of various and integral Christian subtopics, such as remembrance of the Last Supper, Holy Communion, as well as the compelling gifts of Holy[1]. However, even with these interesting and crucial details focused on the unity of Christians, it is essential to apprehend that it is also among the Pauline Letters whose verses have been greatly contested by a section of Christian scholars and theologians due to their confusing interpretations. Specifically, one of these relatively controversial and challenging verses of the First Corinthians includes 1 Corinthians (13:10). In its simplest form, the verse states: “When that which is perfect comes, then that which is in part shall be done away” KJV (1 Corinth 13:10).

The root source of controversy in the 1 Corinthians (13:10) is regarding its reference and use of the word ‘perfect’. Various scholars have published distinct articles and exegetical commentaries about the aforementioned verse. The respective publications have been endeavored at enabling the readers to easily interpret the contents of the verse by offering practical, effective guidelines to approach the verse’s underlying message. One of the essential scholars who have attempted to explore the specific meaning of the word ‘perfect’ comprises Compton[2]. Generally, Compton attempted to examine the understandings of the subsequent word based on the existing sources.

However, regardless of the divergent views on the actual apprehension of the verse, particularly consideration of the word ‘perfect,’ the underlying meaning of the verse can be easily approached by analyzing both its textual/literary meaning and its background context. The word ‘perfect’ can be extended to insinuate the essence of perfect knowledge of Jesus and God. Additionally, the term can be used to denote the comprehension of the anonymities of the heavenly kingdom. In this perspective, the verse then implies that the perfect knowledge of God, Jesus Christ, and heaven shall prevail but not in this life. According to the passage, this perfect knowledge will only be attained in the afterlife, and which is to come.

In this concern, Paul was indicating that God’s children will have perfect knowledge of Him and the heavenly kingdom. In this view, then the notion of “of that which is in part shall be done away” can be associated with the imperfection of knowledge which shall be overcome through the acquisition of the perfect knowledge. Therefore, based on the above discussion, it can be ascertained that the primary purpose of this passage (1 Corinthians 13:10) is to enlighten us about the fundamental spiritual gift of the perfect knowledge of God, Jesus, and the heavenly kingdom, which is yet to manifest.

Paul and Practice of Baptism

Towards the middle of his teaching on the issue of resurrection, Paul the apostle breaks to ask his audience in 1 Corinthians (15:29), “now if there is no resurrection, what will those do who are baptized for the dead? If the dead are not raised at all, why are people baptized for them? (NIV).” Alternatively, the verse may be interpreted to denote: “why are some people baptized on the behalf of the dead, if they are certain that the dead are not resurrected at all?” Irrespective of the dimension in which the verse is viewed, it is apparent that Paul’s statement about “baptism for the dead” is unclear and bewildering, which does its translations and meaning to be relatively uncertain. The complexity associated with this verse can be justified by the existence of diverse exegetical commentaries and scholarly articles based on the attempt to explore its underlying meaning.

As a result of these interpretation difficulties, it is, therefore, logical for some people to contemplate why significant emphasis should be placed on the assessment of the passage’s contents. Yet Paul’s notion for “baptism of the dead” is of much importance, first because of its exemplary application on the daily Christian life and secondly, Paul used it to substantiate the anticipated resurrection of Christian/believers[3]. Typically, the verse comprises several interpretations, with the profound readings relating the passage to the act of some Christians of Corinthian who were baptized on behalf of specific individuals who had died. However, the reliability and validity of this interpretation are vague and unrealistic since there is no actual reference of people opting to be baptized on behalf of the dead either in the Bible or ancient Christian writings.

Secondly, the respective assumption greatly conflict with Paul’s ministry about faith and message about salvation. Essentially, Paul expressed in some of his Epistles that salvation is a personal choice and entails making an individual confession and accepting Jesus to become a believer[4]. So what is the accurate translation of the 1 Corinthians (15:29)? The truth is, although Paul’s audience precisely understood what he meant by the ‘baptism of the dead,’ we, the readers, do not know. However, based on Paul’s casual tone while addressing his listeners, he was seemingly aware of the practice of the baptism of the dead among the Corinthian Christians.

Although Paul’s voice illustrates that he did not support the above act, his statement/question was not metaphorical, and he meant what he said. In this concern, it can be denoted that the Corinthians who were baptizing/being baptized on behalf of the dead were aware that baptism could not save the dead, but rather they exaggerated the actual importance of baptism. With this in mind, it is apparent that the Corinthians were overly bothered by believers who demised before being baptized and hence were fearful of spiritual loss as a consequence. The respective translations can be affirmed through the passages from other scriptures, which portray Paul as a lion for challenging some beliefs and practices endorsed by some traditional church communities and even the gospel itself.

Bibliography

Compton, R. Bruce. “1 Corinthians 13: 8–13 and the Cessation of Miraculous Gifts.” Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal 9, no. 2004 (1): 97144.

Hays, Richard B. First Corinthians. Westminster John Knox Press, 2011.

White, Joel R. ” Baptized on Account of the Dead: The Meaning of 1 Corinthians 15: 29 in Its Context.” Journal of Biblical Literature 116, no. 3 (1997): 487-499.

[1] Richard B. Hays, First Corinthians (Westminster John Knox Press, 2011)10.

[2] Bruce Compton, “1 Corinthians 13: 8–13 and the Cessation of Miraculous Gifts.” Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal 9, no. 1 (2004): 97144.

[3] Joel R. White, “Baptized on Account of the Dead”: The Meaning of 1 Corinthians 15: 29 in Its Context.” Journal of Biblical Literature 116, no. 3 (1997): 487.

[4] Ibid, 20

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The doctrinal theme of eternal punishment in the Bible has been interpreted diversely, leading to differences in how people understand judgment and eschatology. The clergy have utilized the importance of the perpetuity of the hellfire and doctrine of torment to force people to have faith in Christ and to avoid the blasting furnace of hellfire. Revelation 14:10-11 is concerned with the extent and nature of the punishment. The pericope provides a dire warning of eternal torment to those individuals who will worship Satan and receive the mark of the beast. The doctrinal tenets of the modern Church underscore the belief that the last judgment of the sinners to be facilitated and witnessed by Jesus and the holy angels will lead to everlasting and distressing chastisement.[1] Most evangelists repeat the message of eternal torment as an important component of faithful theological belief. The doctrine is presumed to be scriptural, and people are submissive to it under the strain of authority.

Mostly, there are no exegetical discussions that are cited during the interpretation of Revelation 14:10-11. The three main features of the pericope include the imageries that depict the traditional doctrine of hell. The passage suggests that the concept of judgment involving eternal torment describes how unbelievers will be punished with fire that would not be consumed and sulphur.[2] Besides, they will have no rest days demonstrating that their suffering will be perpetual. Furthermore, Revelation 14:10-11 presents the perpetuity of hellfire and the tribulations of the sinners who worship Satan as a judgment. The author used several imageries found in the Old Testament, such as the destruction of Edom, the ancient, as well as Sodom and Gomorrah (Isaiah 34:10, 13:19; Genesis 19:28). The passage presents a symbolical depiction of the final reality of the sinners who will be judged as opposed to the moment of eternal torment.[3] Unbelievers who will worship Satan will not have the eternal rest that is promised to the believers. Consequently, this scholarly work provides an exegetical interpretation of the doctrine of hell as eternal torment as written in Revelation 14: 10-11. Notably, God will ultimately judge His enemies with unconditional destruction and extermination.

Historical Analysis of the Book of Revelation 14: 10-11

Early Church customs and literature attest that the book of Revelation was written by John the Apostle in 95 A.D.[4] In Revelation 1:19, Jesus Christ specified that the author was foretelling his impending Second coming and the judgment of the sinners. John used imageries and allegories since he lacked sufficient words to connote the numerous things that he had seen. Besides, the writer used his prehistoric language predominantly spoken during his time to narrate his visions. Majorly, the author sought to offer comfort to the early Christian congregation, as attested by the pastoral tone utilized in Revelation.

Authorship of the Book of Revelation

Internal Evidence

Johannian composition of the book of Revelation is reinforced by numerous pieces of internal proofs. The early Christians actively got involved in the author’s divinatory ministry (Rev 3; 22:6-10, 18-19). Notably, the writer referred to himself as John in nearly five instances and confirmed that he was among the believers who being persecuted and banished in Patmos during the Domitic reign due to their resounding faith in Christ (Rev 1:1, 4, 9; 21:2; 22:8). The historical evidence has been corroborated by Eusebius, an early Church historian who described how Christians, including Paul and John, were oppressed by the Roman rulers.[5] Additionally, the writer witnessed Jesus Christ’s early salvation mission (Rev 1:2), which may strongly prove he was among the key disciples of Jesus Christ during His earthy ministry on earth. Notably, John the Apostle was one of the favorite Disciples of Christ and accompanied the Messiah in key events such as the transfiguration. Besides, John and Peter were among the first people to arrive at the empty tomb where Jesus was buried after His crucifixion.

Moreover, the Jewish lexes and expressions utilized in the Scripture suggest the writer was a Hebrew. Markedly, several words are derived from the Jewish language are commonly used, for instance, “Hallelujah,” “Amen,” “the children of Israel,” “Abaddon,” “synagogue,” and “the tribe of Judah,” among others (Rev 2:7, 2:9, 2:14, 3:9, 9:11, 14, 2:17, 19:1-6, 22:2). Additionally, descriptions of the Jewish Temple are included in the initial chapters of the book. Similarly, the book of Revelation indicates that the person who wrote letters that were sent to the seven churches was a powerful overseer of the institutions and congregations.[6] Available evidence shows evangelist Paul was succeeded by John the Apostle, which forced the latter to relocate to Asia Minor where the churches were concentrated, proving that John wrote the apocalyptic book.[7] Furthermore, the structure and content of Revelation closely resemble other of John’s texts. Comparable catchphrases and wordings are utilized in both Johannine writings in the New Testament. For instance, the term “Lamb of God” is utilized nearly 27 times in both the Revelation and Fourth Gospel.[8] Besides, the unique idioms, such as “Word of God” and “God is light,” are mostly John’s compositions in both the gospel and epistles (Rev 19:13; John 1:4; 1 John 1:5).

Moreover, the Johannine literature distinctly emphasizes the significance of the number seven, for example, the word “seven” is utilized more than fifty times in the Apocalypse to indicate different phenomenon such as seven plagues, spirits, churches, angels, trumpets, and mountains, among others.[9] Similarly, the Fourth Gospel mentions seven “I Am” testaments made by Jesus Christ. Besides, both the apocalyptic writing and the Gospel of John share close connections in how they describe Christology. John’s writings focused on the mysticism of Christ while recognizing His divine spot in the Holy Trinity (Rev 3:12; 14:1, 14). Furthermore, the author differentiated between the supremacy of Yahweh and the subordinate power of the Lamb or Jesus (Rev 7:19). Besides, the author recognized Christ’s interminable nature by recognizing and praised Him using majestic and divines names, for instance, “Alpha and Omega,” “Word of God,” and “Holy and True,” among others. Notably, Johannine scriptures indicate that Christ will come to judge and punish the sinners.

External Evidence

Patristic evidence attributed to the founding figures, doctors, clergy, and theologians during the development of the early Church reinforces the argument that John the Apostle wrote the prophetic and apocalyptic revelation. Specifically, Irenaeus, Apollonius, Justin Martyr, and Theophilus of Antioch have all attested to the validity of Johannine authorship of the revelation. They played a role in ensuring the book of Revelation was included in the New Testament.[10] Similarly, Tertullian, Gregory Nazianzen, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus, Eusebius, Origen, Victorinus, Jerome, and Athanasius are some notable theologians, clergymen, and church historian who have broadly referred to the Revelation in their seminal work and confirmed that John wrote the prophetic book.[11] Alternatively, different scholars, such as Dionysius, Marcion, Epiphanius of Salamis, and Council of Laodicea (ca.360), among others, have rejected John’s authorship of the book claiming the writer did not ascribe apostolic title to his work since he was neither an apostle nor a Hebrew prophet.[12] Nonetheless, the corroborated evidence contained in writings of early Christian tradition overwhelmingly supports Johannine’s composition of the Apocalypse while under divine guidance.

Dating of the Book of Revelation

Several dates have been proposed to ascertain the proximate time when Revelation was authored. The major categories include the late date (A.D. 98-117), middle date (A.D. 54-68 A.D), and the early date (A.D. 41-54).[13]Nonetheless, scholars emphasize that the book was authored during the time of Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.). The Roman ruler was responsible for persecuting the Christians and the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. Similarly, Irenaeus supported the middle age estimation (A.D. 81-96), asserting Revelation was written when Domitian ruled the Roman Empire.[14] Moreover, Irenaeus’ seminal work titled, Against Heresies, acknowledged 11 times that John wrote the Revelation.[15] Consequently, based on the book’s canonicity, it is universally accepted by historians and theologians that Revelation was composed by John the Apostles almost A.D. 95 after he received a vision from Christ.[16] Importantly, Rev 1:9-10 and evidence provided by Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, are regarded as important internal and external validations that confirm John composed the prophetic and apocalyptic Revelation while still being imprisoned in Patmos.

The significance of determining authorship and dating of Revelation is largely to find out how John the apostles capitalized on the philosophy of perpetual torment in his scriptural writings contained in the New Testament. Notably, the Fourth John assumes that the singular path to receiving eternal life is having unrelenting devotion towards Jesus Christ as the savior. John’s gospel does not focus much on the punishment that awaits sinners. The subject of salvation for believers is widely covered in John’s scriptures (John 3:15, 16, 36; 5:24; 20:31; 1 John 5:11-13). The book reveals the consequence for sinners who refuse to accept Jesus as their savior. Such nonbelievers will be doomed to eternal torment.

Occasion and Audience of the Book of Revelation

Jesus Christ presented a vision of the Apocalypse to John the Apostle while still imprisoned in Patmos. Christ wanted to remind the Church about the terrible punishment that awaits the nonbelievers for their unfaithfulness. Jesus directed John to write the apparition and share it with the seven churches, namely Pergamos, Smyrna, Philadelphia, Ephesus, Sardis, Laodicea, and Thyatira, which were found in Minor Asia (Rev 1:9-11). The strategic location of the seven cities, specifically along the well-traveled Roman roads, allowed the prophetic and apocalyptic text to be widely distributed, read and understood by the Christians. In Revelation 2:9, 3:2, and 13, Christ reminded them of His companionship since the early Christians were facing persecution during the Domitic period (81-96 A.D.). The churches struggled with internal and external challenges, which impacted their faith. Nonetheless, the Christians in Sardis and Smyrna proved to be resilient despite the misfortunes, societal influences, and tyranny (Rev 3: 4). The external influences and internal wrangles led some Christians to adopt wicked lifestyles and abandoned their faith and obedience to Yahweh (Rev 2: 6, 14, 20; 3:15). Notably, churches’ tribulations were a central highlight of John the Apostle’s ministry. He encouraged the brethren to deal with all issues that threatened the early churches and overcome the dreadful persecutions.[17] The revelation sought to connect spirituality and apocalyptic events to encourage the Church congregation and nonbelievers to be always alert and ready for the coming of Jesus as a righteous way of avoiding eternal torment (Rev 2:7, 11, 16; 3: 21).

Setting and Purpose of the Book of Revelation

In the initial chapter of the Revelation, bible readers are informed that John was given the apocalyptic vision while being held in captivity in Patmos (Rev 1:9). Arguments about the identity of the Patmos as the place the book was authored is less contentious as John strongly hinted where he received the apparition and was asked to share it with the early Churches. The overall objective of Revelation is that the Lord will judge those people who persecute faithful believers. The author sought to support righteous discipleship by encouraging Christian to strongly endure their misery, especially the prospects of martyrdom akin to how Jesus conquered evil and darkness. The Revelation represents victory and redemption of those who trust in Jesus Christ as a glorious ruler and the Lamb sacrificed to save people from mortal sin.

Additionally, the book describes God’s intention to liberate people from the bondage of sin and protect them from the eternal fire in hell to demonstrate his love and grace. Importantly, the Johannine revelation sought to provide comfort, assurance, and hope to the brethren owing to the tribulations that they endured.[18] God promised them eternal rewards in heaven for their resilience and devotion. Consequently, the book serves a consolatory purpose by reassuring the believers about the Lord’s consolation and protection. Additionally, the doctrinal objective is also evident in the vision as it emphasizes God’s providence and restoration that will be strongly evident when Christ returns. Lastly, the prophetic text achieves the practical and hortative goal by encouraging both the believers and sinners to be spiritually, mentally, and physically ready to receive Christ again.

Furthermore, John focused on the divergent nature of good and evil, Jesus and Satan, in addition to how Christ will ultimately emerge victoriously. The people have a choice to solely worship the Lord. Other major themes include God’s kingdom, adoration, and deliverance. Revelation emphasizes how Christ is the victor when it comes to solving the phenomenal controversy of good and evil. Consequently, the angel’s message purposely focused on the primeval context and prevailing circumstances that the early Christians had to endure. Moreover, John made a prophetic call to inspire the brethren to be resilient in the wake of oppression, maintain their divine commitments, and avoid the negative pressures of the environment, especially the pervading popular culture in the Greco-Roman society.[19] Consequently, another dominant thematic issue includes the judgment day that will be heralded by the return of the Messiah. The Scripture solely focuses on inspiring the brethren to demonstrate determination and faithfulness regardless of the severity of current and future tribulations. Importantly, through Jesus, God would deliver absolute triumph over Satan’s power and control. Jesus’ Second Coming and judgment represent the defeat of Satan and his endeavors to subvert piety and devotion among believers.

Literary Analysis of Revelation 14: 10-11

Literary Structure

Revelation 13 and 14 can be taken to be parallel. Chapter 13 demonstrates the attack on the wicked remnant, and Revelation 14 addresses the faithful remnant. In chapter 14, verses 1-5 and 6-12, the reader can see the transition to the wicked people from the remnant. In Revelation 13, the author describes the dragon engaged in warfare with the remnant of the woman, which progresses to the point of death threats issued to the remnant after the chapter. However, in the fourteenth chapter, the visualization opens up with observing the remnant, which includes 144,000 faithful continuing to adore and venerate God, despite facing the danger of being persecuted.[20] Also, chapter 13 indicates that those who face impending doom are the remnant of God who refuses to bow down to the beast, while in chapter 14, death awaits those who show devotion to the beast and abandon their Creator. Therefore, the message by the three angels could be viewed as the ultimate petition to those who partake in adoring and venerating the beast. The pericope represents that message of hope, “the eternal gospel” by the angel to pass on to “every nation tribe, language, and people” on earth (14:6). The events included in the warning are about to happen as soon after this, there are two consecutive harvests of the beast-worshiping remnant, and it introduces the happenings of seven bowls of God’s wrath described in chapter 15.

Genre

The author of the book of Revelation uses multiple literary styles, including prophecy, letter, and apocalypse in writing the text. However, the book is predominated by the apocalyptic style and, therefore, assigned to the apocalyptic literature literary genre. The form of the genre incorporates the literary device of visions to make the message vivid by uncovering it through symbols and signs.[21] Revelation 14:11 is characterized by the use of various such symbols as the “smoke,” the “beast” and its image, and the “mark” of its name, which specifically places it under the symbolism sub-genre of apocalyptic literature.[22] It is marked by symbolic angels, a comparison between evil and good, as well as prophecies of terror and the end of the world. Numbers are also a significant element of its literary device. Revelation is the only text in the New Testament that includes the literary genre of apocalyptic literature. Other examples where the style is applied are found in the Old Testament, including the books of Zechariah and Daniel, as well as in particular passages like Isaiah 24-17 and Ezekiel 37-39.[23]  Revelation 1:1 highlights the symbolic aspect of the apocalyptic writing that the author tries to unravel. While addressing multiple Christian communities in Minor Asia, the author tries to recount what he has heard, seen, or recognized in the course of his vision presented to him by Jesus. The text is identified as a “revelation,” which appeals to the idea of unveiling something that was previously hidden, covered, or in secret.[24] The audience is encouraged to view all actions and portrayed in the book as figurative and symbolic, except in cases where the author indicates the literal meaning that must be assumed. To have a proper understanding of Revelation 14: 10-11, it is important to interpret the passage’s apocalyptic symbolism. The passage also focuses on symbolism, which requires analysis to comprehend the message communicated through its characters, features, and events. The three key symbols tied to the end of times include the smoke, the beast, and the mark.

The Smoke

The smoke, as used to depict the end of times in Revelation 14:11, is a symbol of terror and destruction by God’s wrath upon those who revere Satan. In the phrase, “and the smoke of their torment,” the term smoke is followed by the word torment, which signifies that the final days will be characterized by the painful annihilation of those who refuse to worship God and instead choose to go against His will. As Everett observed, the symbolism is drawn from the events of destruction that were seen in Sodom and Gomorrah as described in Genesis 19:28.[25] The demolition of the cities as witnessed by Abraham is considered a signal of the destruction of the impious, and the smoke that went up from them is an emblem of what rises from the place where wicked people undergo eternal suffering. The source of the smoke in the current passage will be the bodies of the wicked in burning sulfur, which constitutes part of God’s cup of anger upon those who worship the beast.[26] Moreover, the fact that the smoke ascends forever and ever signifies the eternal nature of the torment, which is also implicated in Mathew 25:46, whereby the sinners will be sent away to eternal punishment. This will mark a permanent end to all forms of evil and result in a situation whereby all humans on earth will worship God alone.

The Beast and the Mark

The book of Revelation 14:11 talks of the beast which is capable of stealing people’s souls from God. In this context, the term “beast” is utilized to portray a wild, adversarial creature which humans should make every effort to avoid. However, “beast” is symbolic, and the context is not describing an actual animal.[27] It represents Satan, who tries to antagonize God and compete with him in winning the souls of men. The beast uses its “mark” to identify the people who are devoted to Satan.[28] The mark, which is identified as the number 666, has received many controversial interpretations, with many analysts trying to unravel its literal meaning in the modern world.[29] However, Everett revealed that the number “666” could be considered as a furtive representation of the ancient pagan mysteries elated to devil worshipping.[30] Therefore, the author of Revelation used the symbolism of the mark to refer to the practice of deserting God’s teachings and embracing paganism as their way of life.

Exposition/Interpretation of Revelation 14: 10-11

There is a need to consider symbolism and assessment of Biblical background while assessing how final judgment is described in Revelation 14:11. The Biblical imagery of judgment by fire and sulphur does not emphasize eternal torment but the pivotal annihilation of God’s enemies.[31] The context of Revelation 14: 10-11 can be traced to the oracle of Edom’s destruction and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah’s devastation (Genesis 19:28; Isaiah 34:10). Furthermore, the moment of judgment is referenced by the torment encountered by God’s enemies in the presence of the Lamb and the angels. The adversaries’ annihilation is a symbol of their extinction as described in Isaiah 34 and Genesis 19. Consequently, Revelation 14: 10-11 attempts to provide an alternative account regarding the defeat of God’s enemies. The pericope can be compared to Revelation 18 that details the fall of Babylon, whereby the natives faced the full wrath of God’s torment in their final judgment.[32] The excruciating moment of vicious judgment or eternal torment is described through the use of sulphur and fire. Alternatively, the memorial and depiction of devastation or the evidence of enduring, eternal distress after God’s judgment are represented by the smoke of the suffering that will rise eternally.[33] The sinners will have no rest day demonstrating the unrelenting nature of God’s eternal reprimand.

The message proclaimed by the three angels has three major features that enable biblical readers to correctly interpret Revelation 14: 10-11. Notably, John uses the verb εἶδον to draw readers’ attention from the account of the righteous people who will enter God’s Kingdom.[34] Consequently, the message was not intended for the remnants who also feared God, and their foreheads bore the seal of the Lord. The message can be perceived as a caution to the earth and its populations that they must be righteous to be written in the book of life.[35] The passage also warns people against being unfaithful and their wickedness. Those individuals who worship the beast will face God’s judgment and complete devastation that will eliminate the wicked eternally (Revelation 14:11, 15:7). The righteous are promised a place in paradise where they will live with God forever. John presents a climatic warning message in Revelation 14:10-11 for the disobedient and sinful people as well as those who will lack the seal of the Lord on their foreheads. The outcome of venerating the unholy trinity will lead to judgment and perpetual devastation for the wickedness.

Canonical Analysis of Revelation 14: 10-11

The Immediate Context of Revelation 14: 10-11

The book of Revelation focuses on the issue of eternal fire and judgment. John provides a comprehensive assessment of the eschatological devastation and annihilation that will happen in Babylon (Rev 18:18; 21). Similarly, Revelation 20:10 details how Satan and his followers will be cast into eternal torment. The eschatological judgment, also known as κατέφαγεν, will involve sheer obliteration of the sinful people who will not be included in the book of life, Satan, and his angels.[36] They will be cast in a lake of eternal fire to face their second death (Rev 20: 14, 15). Revelation 12:1 to 14:20 describes the great controversy theme where the dragon is symbolically depicted devouring Jesus, fighting God, and oppresses His people. Furthermore, Revelation 13 narrates how the dragon, notably the faithful woman, as well as how the land and sea beast collectively strive to ensure people worship Satan. The unholy trinity proved to be a threat as many people were martyred for standing firm against venerating the beast (Revelation 13:15).

Additionally, Revelation 14 includes a symbolical representation of the 144,000 people to denote the faithful remnants who survived the purge since they continued to worship God and had their seals on the forehead.[37]Ultimately, the three angels were sent to warn the world about the impending God’s judgment, the second coming of Jesus Christ, and the separation of the harvest. The book of Revelation focused on the concept of judgment for those who declined to repent and worship Yahweh (Revelation 12:1-14:20). Eschatological people are urged to leave Babylon and accept the true God’s divinity to avoid punishment. Notable, Satan capitalizes on fear to compel people to obey and worship him. Nonetheless, God neutralizes the beasts’ threats and strengthens people to secure their allegiance.

The Wider Context of Revelation 14: 10-11

Revelation 14:14-20 comprehensively describes how the three angels will announce the final harvest judgment. The description contains imagery and verbal clues similar to those in Revelation 14:9-11 that also provide warning proclamation. The verses focus on the eternal, conscious torment after the judgment, but it will end in the elimination and destruction of God’s enemies. Revelation 14:10-11 can be compared with Isaiah 34:8-17 that focuses on the oracle against Edom. Moreover, Isaiah 34 describes the eschatological judgment for those who opposed God’s kingdom. Notably, a smoke that burns forever, an endless judgment, and flaming sulphur are mentioned in the Isaianic passage and Revelation 14:11 to signify the destruction of Edom or God’s wrath against the unbelievers. John adopted inverted parallelism to describe how an individual will receive the mark of the beast and its image on their hands and forehead for worshipping him.[38] Besides, sulphur and fire will be used to torture the unsaved in the presence of Lamb and the holy angels.

The imagery of devastation is also depicted in other parts of the Bible, especially the Old Testament, for instance, the prophecy of Edom (Isaiah 34) and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19). Analysis of both passages, there is evidence that such places will be completely ruined and no person will be spared, and the fire will burn ceaselessly. Notably, the assessment is consistent with Biblical theology that emphasizes the pericope means the elimination of sinfulness when people refuse to obey God and eternal life. The traditionalist understanding of Revelation 14:10-11 disregards the disconfirmation of the doctrine of eternal torment. The pericope includes a warning to God’s enemies that they will be harshly judged. Some theologians state that the Book of Revelation recapitulates the visions regarding divine judgment. There are several resembling accounts of how God will judge His foes (Rev 11:15-18; 14:6-20; 19:6-20). Notably, the proclamation about the impending judgment on Babylon is clearly described in Revelation 14 and 18. Besides, the angel’s proclamation on judgment upon God’s nemeses is similarly covered in Revelation 19:17-20:10 and Revelation 14:9-11. Furthermore, the inviolability of the martyrs is detailed in both Revelation 20:11-21 and Revelation 14:12-13. The semantic of final, decisive devastation immensely focuses on judgment rather than eternal torment described in Revelation 14:11. The similar imagery of how the smoke will rise perpetually are evident in Revelation 18:18 and 19:3. Moreover, Revelation 14:9-11 also contains similarities with Revelation 6: 12-1, particularly on when the terrible and intense God’s judgment will come. Both passages describe the fury of the Lord in full strength against the sinners. Despite focusing on portraying the final judgment, the book of Revelation minimally details the enduring, ceaseless conscious punishment.

Application of Revelation 14: 10-11

There are many ways in which the message in Revelation 14:11 can be applied in today’s context. Some of the theological implications arising from the passage concern sin and how the Creator deals with those who choose to lead wicked ways. On one hand, sin represents a wrecked relationship between God and humans. Once Adam and Eve committed the sinful act while in the Garden of Eden as indicated in the book of Genesis, God already had a plan in place to save man and re-establish the link that was destroyed as a result of sin.[39] The Bible, particularly the New Testament, includes numerous instances that demonstrate God’s salvation and ways of regaining this relationship. Jesus’ death on the cross afforded humans the privilege to have their sins wiped out as long as they showed remorse and asked for forgiveness for their misdeeds.

Similarly, the passage of Revelation 14:11 emphasizes the idea that the Creator does not perpetuate transgression but will eliminate it. God is never pleased with sinfulness, and the text of Revelation covers numerous scenarios where He is pleading with humans to repent and change their evil ways. He is also a jealous God who seeks to retain His position as the mightiest before all creatures. Ultimately, those who disobey him are doomed to death. Also, sin never wins in the presence of God, but only His eternal kingdom.[40] Therefore, He will eradicate any false prophets, the beast, and their followers. Christians are encouraged to leave their sinful ways, follow Jesus, and worship God in spirit and truth. This implies showing full dedication to serving the Lord in their day-to-day lives. The Christian clergy must correctly emphasize the infinity of the hellfire and doctrine of eternal torment to provide a basis for modern churches and Christians to strengthen their faith in Christ and to avoid the severe judgment that will involve being cast in eternal hellfire.

Revelation 14:10-11 references the account of Sodom and Gomorrah as written in Genesis 19:28. The obliteration of the two cities is theologically translated to mean the annihilation of the sinners. The sinners will endure eternal and severe suffering. The New Testament doctrine is quite compacted and definitive on the eternal torment of the sinners. Notably, Christ also focused on the subject of punishment for the wicked or divine wrath more than his disciples. Nonetheless, Christians are encouraged to faithful to God, especially in times of trial.[41] The gospel calls on people to fear God and glorify Him since it helps to uproot the bases of the antichrist and his dominion. Any person who continues to worship the beast and promote his cause must expect to be perpetually depressed in body and soul. Professing Jesus’ faith and being obedient to God’s commandment will protect the believers from any suffering.[42]Furthermore, Christians are called to be ready to be killed in the state of union and cause of the Lord. Such martyrdom will allow believers to receive eternal rest from all persecution, sorrow, temptation, and sin. The Lamb will judge and condemn the followers or worshippers of the beasts, while the holy angels will act as the executioners who will assemble and separate them from the virtuous people then throw them into the blast furnace of hellfire.[43] Besides, the holy angels will be present throughout the ordeal to spectate and rejoice in their eternal torment. The glory and power of the Lamb and the holy angels will worsen the suffering of the sinful people. The fury of the Lord against wickedness will be unmerciful and without hope.

Revelation 14: 10-11 focuses on presenting the image of God’s triumph and the defeat of the beast.  Immediately after the second angel proclaimed the fall of Babylon owing to its wickedness, spiritual fornication, and rebellion against God, the third angel cautioned the people about the imminent judgment. The unbelievers will face the full wrath of God for worshipping the beast.[44] They will be condemned to hellfire and brimstone where the smoke of their suffering perpetually rises. The people will have no rest forever for receiving the mark on Satan on their forehead or hands. Loyalty to the antichrist and his dominion will lead to God’s strong punishment.[45] The same message is reiterated in Jeremiah 25:15 and Psalm 75:8.  Consequently, the adversaries of God will not escape His anger and wrath, since Jesus Himself could not avoid it if were possible (Matthew 26:39). God’s fury is steadfast hostility towards unrighteousness and sin. Revelation 14: 10-11 teaches numerous significant truths regarding hell and the eternal fate of the condemned sinners. The real torment will be largely abhorrent and hurting. God will be present in hell through His angels and the Lamb to proclaim His virtuous judgment, holy justice, sacredness, and fury against sin. The majority of the unbelievers who worshipped the beast and were sent to hell would wish that God was absent. Nonetheless, since the veneration of Satan on earth was not interrupted by penitence, the eternal torment of the unbelievers will also not be stopped by deferred repentance sought in hell.

Conclusion

Revelation 14:11 is categorized in apocalyptic literature as it mainly focuses on prophecies on the events that are generally connected to the description of the end of times. The passage incorporates the use of symbolism to make the audience understand the happenings associated with the end times. The smoke that ascends forever from torment could be viewed as the consequences faced by those who fail to worship God or turn away from their sins. They await destruction and eternal torment and will neither see the kingdom of God nor receive rest. The book of Revelation is relevant to modern Christian despite its medieval authorship to the early church. The original historical context of the apocalypse is transcended by the numerous spiritual truths. Nonetheless, evangelists, theologians, and the larger congregation of believers must be cautious of the exegetical interpretation of the Revelation. Failure to correctly analyze the complex imageries, symbols, and prophecies contained in the book can easily distort the message.

Moreover, Revelation 14: 10-11 has a universal application that is constrained to the churches in Asia Minor. The pericope assists in strengthening the faith of the brethren by demonstrating how worshipping the true God will lead to eternal rest while evil and wickedness will be judged harshly. Furthermore, the passage assures those persecuted Christians to be firm believers in God’s power, providence, and divinity. They will be written in the book of life and escape the eternal torment that is characterized by hellfire that will burn perpetually. The prophetic and apocalyptic message in Revelation 14: 10-11 provides comfort, encouragement, and exhortation to the righteous people that God will always be with them and guide them to subdue Satan’s fears and threats, which are aimed at forcing them to worship and glorify him. The passage comprehensively advances the general theme of the book of Revelation, namely, God’s plan to bring the entire cosmos under His dominion and power. Moreover, Revelation reminds believers to anticipate suffering, but they are called to be faithful and trustful of God’s sovereignty and accept that Jesus Christ reigns supreme and will ensure righteousness triumphs over evil.

Bibliography

Aune, David E. Revelation 6–16: Word Biblical Commentary, 52B. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998.

Bacchiocchi, Samuele. “Hell: Eternal Torment or Annihilation?” Endtime Issues 7, no. 2 (1999): 1-8.

Bowles, Ralph G. “Does Revelation 14: 11 Teach Eternal Torment?” Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism, 9, no. 3 (2014): 138-54.

Craigen, Trevor P. “Eternal Punishment in John’s Revelation.” The Master’s Seminary Journal 9, no. 2 (1998): 191-201.

Davis, Christopher A. Revelation. Harare: College Press, 2000.

Duke, Rodney K. “Eternal Torment or Destruction? Interpreting Final Judgment Texts.” Evangelical Quarterly 88, no. 3 (2016).

Kistemaker, Simon J., and William Hendriksen. Exposition of the Book of Revelation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.

Osborne, Grant R. Revelation: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Michigan: Baker Academic, 2002.

Paulien, Jon. “Beale, GK The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text.” Andrews University Seminary Studies 38, no. 2 (2000): 313-314.

Powys, David J. ‘Hell’: A Hard Look at a Hard Question: The Fate of the Unrighteous in New Testament Thought. Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2007.

Resseguie, James L. The Revelation of John: A Narrative Commentary. Michigan: Baker Academic, 2009.

Savige, Craig. “Biblical answers about Hell.” Accessed November 28, 2020, http://victoryfaithcentre.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/AnswersHell.pdf

Stefanovic, Ranko. Revelation of Jesus Christ: Commentary on the Book of Revelation. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2009.

Sweeney, Jon M. Inventing Hell: Dante, the Bible and Eternal Torment. London: Hachette UK, 2014.

Swete, Henry Barclay. The Apocalypse of St. John: The Greek Text with Introduction Notes and Indices. Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1999.

[1] David J. Powys, ‘Hell’: A Hard Look at a Hard Question: The Fate of the Unrighteous in New Testament Thought. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2007), 11.

[2] Ibid., 15.

[3] Gary H. Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures: The Book of Revelation (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2018), 5.

[4] Ibid., 4.

[5] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 6.

[6] Ibid., 6.

[7] Ibid., 7.

[8] Ibid., 8.

[9] Ibid., 6-10.

[10] Ibid., 11.

[11] Ibid., 13

[12] Ibid., 13.

[13] Ibid., 17.

[14] Ibid., 17.

[15] Ibid., 17.

[16] Ibid., 17.

[17] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 19

[18] Ibid., 22.

[19] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 19-22.

[20] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 19.

[21] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 19.

[22] Ibid., 19.

[23] Ibid., 33.

[24] Ibid., 33-34.

[25] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 19.

[26] Duke, Rodney K. “Eternal Torment or Destruction? Interpreting Final Judgment Texts.” Evangelical Quarterly 88, no. 3 (2016): 5.

[27] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 20.

[28] Ibid., 19-20.

[29] Ibid., 20.

[30] Ibid., 19-20.

[31] Simon J. Kistemaker and William Hendriksen, Exposition of the Book of Revelation. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001), 26.

[32] Jon Paulien, “Beale, GK The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text.” Andrews University Seminary Studies 38, no. 2 (2000): 314.

[33] Grant R. Osborne, Revelation: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 16.

[34] Christopher A. Davis, Revelation. (Harare: College Press, 2000), 21.

[35] Craig Savige, “Biblical answers about Hell.” Accessed November 28, 2020, http://victoryfaithcentre.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/AnswersHell.pdf

[36] David E. Aune, Revelation 6–16: Word Biblical Commentary, 52B. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 18.

[37] Ranko Stefanovic, Revelation of Jesus Christ: Commentary on the Book of Revelation. (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2009), 34.

[38] Everett, Study Notes on the Holy Scriptures, 20.

[39] Swete, Henry Barclay. The Apocalypse of St. John: The Greek Text with Introduction Notes and Indices. (Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1999), 11.

[40] James L. Resseguie, The Revelation of John: A Narrative Commentary. (Michigan: Baker Academic, 2009), 56.

[41] Ralph G. Bowles, “Does Revelation 14: 11 Teach Eternal Torment?” Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism, 9, no. 3 (2014): 148.

[42] Trevor P. Craigen. “Eternal Punishment in John’s Revelation.” The Master’s Seminary Journal 9, no. 2 (1998): 195.

[43] Samuele Bacchiocchi. “Hell: Eternal Torment or Annihilation?” Endtime Issues 7, no. 2 (1999): 4.

[44] Jon M. Sweeney, Inventing Hell: Dante, the Bible and Eternal Torment. (London: Hachette UK, 2014), 52.

[45] Bowles, “Does Revelation 14: 11 Teach Eternal Torment?” 142.

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